Gaoxi Temple

In "Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils," the secret passphrase that Wei Xiaobao and the Tiandihui members often used when meeting up was widely talked about and is arguably the most famous couplet. It goes:

The earth shakes the high ridge, a sweeping view of streams and mountains remains peerlessly beautiful through the ages. The gate faces the vast sea, where three rivers merge their waters and flow eternally.

There’s no doubt about Jin Yong’s literary talent, and everyone also believes that if he wanted to write such a couplet, he certainly could. However, this particular couplet was not originally written by Jin Yong but comes from a place of great importance to the Tiandihui — Gaoxi Temple’s Guanyin Pavilion in Gaoxi Village, Yunxiao County, Fujian.

A surviving important meeting site of the Tiandihui

There are many legends about the founding of the Tiandihui, but according to records and tales passed down by societies like the Hongmen and Triads that still exist today, the monk Ti Xi (secular name Zheng Hong’er, alias Wan Yunlong) from Yunxiao County, Fujian, took disciples and taught skills in front of Gaoxi Temple in Gaoxi Village, reestablishing the banner of the Tiandihui. This marked the beginning of their secretive anti-Qing preparations. Later, Monk Ti Xi led several anti-Qing uprisings, unfortunately none of which succeeded. His followers scattered or were killed, and the Tiandihui once again went underground.

Wei Xiaobao and the Qingmu Hall

During this process, Gaoxi Temple in Gaoxi Village became an important stronghold of the Tiandihui. Legend has it that the Five Elders of Shaolin of the Tiandihui took their oath of brotherhood at Gaoxi Temple. And the famous couplet in "Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils" is indeed the plaque inscription of Guanyin Pavilion at Gaoxi Temple.

So what does the couplet “The earth shakes the high ridge, a sweeping view of streams and mountains remains peerlessly beautiful through the ages. The gate faces the vast sea, where three rivers merge their waters and flow eternally” actually mean? It turns out that Gaoxi Temple and Guanyin Pavilion are situated on high ground, with mountains behind them and a small stream in front, which corresponds to “The earth shakes the high ridge, a sweeping view of streams and mountains remains peerlessly beautiful through the ages.” Moreover, Gaoxi Temple faces the sea, and right in front of the temple, three small rivers converge before flowing into the ocean — this is the meaning behind “The gate faces the vast sea, where three rivers merge their waters and flow eternally.”

Originally, this couplet merely described the natural scenery around Guanyin Pavilion at Gaoxi Temple. But due to the temple’s significant role in the history of the Tiandihui and Hongmen, it has been celebrated and expanded upon. Of course, it also speaks to Jin Yong’s remarkable knowledge.

The Tiandihui was one of the secret societies among the people during the Qing Dynasty, named for worshipping Heaven as Father and Earth as Mother. Also called Hongmen, it is commonly known as the Hong Gang. Initially, the Tiandihui was just a folk secret society originating in Fujian, but it later spread to Taiwan, Guangdong, Guangxi, Jiangxi, Yunnan-Guizhou, Hunan, and Jiangsu-Zhejiang, and was brought overseas by Hongmen members among the Chinese diaspora.

However, there is much debate over when, by whom, and where the Tiandihui was founded, with over ten different theories. These have now formed a field of study known as “Hong Studies.”

But according to Professor Cai Shaoqing, a long-time researcher of social history, Chinese secret society history, and secret organizations, in his article “On the Origins of the Tiandihui,” he proposed that Hongmen-Tiandihui originated in the Zhangzhou area of Fujian and was founded in the 26th year of the Qianlong reign by the monk Hong’er (also known as Wan Ti Xi) from Zhangpu County.

Professor Qin Baoqi, Vice President of the Chinese Secret Society History Research Association and doctoral supervisor at the Qing History Research Institute of Renmin University, in his articles “On the Tiandihui” and Liu Meizhen’s “On Several Historical Issues of the Tiandihui,” suggested that the Tiandihui was established in the mid-Qianlong period, with the founder being the monk Ti Xi (also known as Hong’er).

The renowned historian Hu Zhusheng, in his article “A Preliminary Exploration of the Origins of the Tiandihui — Also a Review of Comrade Cai Shaoqing’s ‘On the Origins of the Tiandihui,’” argued that Zheng Chenggong was the founder of the Tiandihui, which was established in the early Qing Kangxi era in Fujian and Taiwan, and later spread to Guangdong and Sichuan.

The well-known Qing historian and expert on the history of Chinese secret societies, He Zhiqing, in his article “Questioning the ‘Qianlong Theory’ of the Tiandihui’s Origins,” refuted the claim that the Tiandihui originated in the Qianlong era with Hong’er as the founder, asserting instead that the Tiandihui was founded in the 13th year of the Kangxi reign.

Based on the Hongmen’s traditional question-and-answer poems — the Name-Poem: “Elder brother asks my name and surname, I originally lived in Muyang City, under the pines and cypresses, mother Li Jin Niang, we changed our surnames to Hong at the flower pavilion when we became sworn brothers” — and the Date-Poem: “Elder brother asks when I was born, the year is the jiayin year, a lucky day on the 25th, born at the hour of zi or chou” — we can infer. The jiayin years in the Qing Dynasty include: the 13th year of Kangxi (1674), the 12th year of Yongzheng (1734), the 59th year of Qianlong (1794), and the 4th year of Xianfeng (1854).

Currently, many Tiandihui researchers believe the society was founded in the 13th year of Kangxi, with the initiation ceremony held in Muyang City.

There is a famous legend called the “Xilu Story.” It says Emperor Kangxi conscripted a group of highly skilled monks from Southern Shaolin in Putian, Fujian, to campaign in Tibet. Upon their victorious return, someone falsely accused them of plotting rebellion, so Kangxi ordered the burning of Southern Shaolin. Five lay disciples of Shaolin escaped and, filled with hatred for the Qing court, asked Wan Yunlong to be their leader and Chen Jinnan to be their military advisor. They founded the Hongmen, vowing to “overthrow the Qing and restore the Ming” under the principle of “Heaven as Father, Earth as Mother,” hence the name Tiandihui. They revered Zheng Chenggong as their founding patriarch, and these five men were known as the “Five Ancestors of the Hongmen” (Fang Dahong, Hu Dedi, Ma Chaoxing, Cai Dezhong, and Li Shikai).

There is also the theory that Zheng Chenggong founded the Tiandihui. After reclaiming Taiwan, Zheng Chenggong remained determined to restore the Central Plains, so he established the secret organization Hongmen, using “Hanliu” as its code name. He stationed operatives on the mainland to recruit anti-Qing loyalists and secretly resist the Qing. They specifically took orders from Chen Yonghua (aka Chen Jinnan), a staff officer in Taiwan. Jin Yong’s novel "Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils" adopted and dramatized this version.

Historical records confirm that in the 26th year of Qianlong (1761), a monk named Zheng Hong’er, using the alias Wan Yunlong, operated the Tiandihui in Fujian, advocating for the overthrow of the Qing and restoration of the Ming. By day, he chanted scriptures and worshipped Buddha; by night, he gathered crowds for gambling, amassing money in preparation for an uprising. He had a son, Zheng Ji, and subordinates including Chen Biao, Chen Pi, Zhang Pu, Zhang Gou (Broken-face Dog), Lu Mao, Li Shaomin, and Zhao Mingde, numbering in the hundreds.

In the 33rd year of Qianlong (1768), Wan Yunlong sent his subordinate Lu Mao and others to lead over 300 followers in an attack on the Zhangpu County government office. But before all the members could gather, the plot was exposed. Dozens were killed, and over 300 followers were captured. In early 1770, the 35th year of Qianlong, Wan Yunlong sent Li Shaomin to proclaim Zhu Zhenxing, a descendant of the Ming royal family, as the “King of Revitalization.” However, the authorities got wind of it and arrested them, leading to another failure. When captured, the members, fearing retaliation against their families by Wan Yunlong, refused to reveal his identity. Wan Yunlong pretended to be a monk, continuing to drink and visit brothels in the temple, living leisurely. After Wan Yunlong’s death, his son Zheng Ji took over the Tiandihui, taking the dharma name “Xingyi.”

After the Lin Shuangwen uprising in Taiwan, the Qing court ordered a strict investigation of the Tiandihui in Fujian and Taiwan. Wan Yunlong was exposed, and his son “Xingyi” was arrested. In the 54th year of Qianlong (1789), the reports of Fujian-Zhejiang Governor Wu Lan’a and Fujian Governor Xu Si’zeng stated: “We have investigated that Ti Xi founded the Tiandihui in the 26th year of Qianlong... The suspect’s secular name was Zheng Kai, his monastic name was Ti Xi, also called Tu Xi, also called Hong’er the Monk.”

My novel "Bai Yu Hong Chen Zhuan" is based on this historical account, dramatized for storytelling.

To honor Wan Yunlong, Tiandihui members often referred to themselves as “Brothers of the Wan Family,” even using “Wan” as a code word for surname: “Which Wan are you, elder?”

The earliest members of the Tiandihui were mostly peasants or small artisans, peddlers, transport workers along waterways and roads, and other drifters who became impoverished. Over time, the membership grew more diverse, but it remained predominantly made up of lower-class poor people.

From the Qianlong era onward, the Tiandihui rallied under slogans like “Follow Heaven’s Way,” “Eliminate Corrupt Officials,” and “Fight for the Nation.” After the Jiaqing era, they added slogans like “Revive the Ming, Eradicate the Qing” and “Overthrow the Qing, Restore the Ming.” By the late Qing, anti-Manchu sentiments were also incorporated.

After the Jiaqing and Daoguang eras, the Tiandihui even spread overseas, gaining widespread traction among overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia and the Americas. They organized multiple resistance efforts against Western colonial powers.

Domestic branches of the Tiandihui continuously created new names to counter Qing court suppression and facilitate recruitment, evolving into groups such as Qiankunhui, Tiandi Hui, Sandian Hui, Sanhe Hui, Sanhe Hui, Quan Zi Hui, Han Liu (Liu), Bagua Hui, and others.

The Tiandihui launched multiple armed uprisings during the Qing Dynasty, with significant ones including the Lin Shuangwen Rebellion in Taiwan in the 51st year of Qianlong’s reign, the Chen Zhouquan Uprising in Taiwan in the 60th year, and the Jia Shan Uprising. After the Opium Wars, the Tiandihui became even more active. During the Taiping Rebellion, leaders such as Hong Daquan (Jiao Liang) and Luo Dagang directly led their followers to join the Taiping Army. Short-lived regimes established by the Tiandihui in the Guangdong-Guangxi region, such as the Dacheng Kingdom, Shengping Heavenly Kingdom, and Yanling Kingdom, greatly supported the Taiping cause. There were also the Xiamen Xiaodao Hui Uprising and the Shanghai Xiaodao Hui Uprising.

During the Xinhai Revolution, the Tiandihui and its branches actively participated in and supported the armed uprisings led by revolutionary parties. Overseas Hongmen organizations not only provided financial support to revolutionaries but also sent members back to China to join the revolution. Tan Renfeng, one of the leaders of the Xinhai Revolution, wrote in his "Opinions on the Association Improvement Society": "The success of the revolution (Xinhai Revolution) was actually sown two hundred years ago by the Hongmen societies," "In the early stages of the movement, only the Hongmen brothers could keep secrets. After the uprising began, only the Hongmen brothers could follow commands." "No matter how far or near, no matter how dangerous or safe, everyone fought bravely and took the lead, culminating in the Wuchang Uprising, with provinces responding one after another. In just a few months, the republic was established—this achievement was as much the credit of the Hongmen brothers as of the army."

After the Republic of China was founded, most domestic Tiandihui organizations became tools for personal power struggles. However, most overseas Hongmen organizations continued to serve as important bonds uniting overseas Chinese. For example, the China Zhi Gong Party evolved from a branch of the Tiandihui overseas—the American Zhigong Hall, which was established in the United States in the early 20th century.

Only a few turned into criminal organizations. For instance, the modern Triads evolved from earlier Tiandihui groups. But during the Republican era, the Triads and similar groups actively participated in the revolution, assisting Sun Yat-sen, Huang Xing, Tao Chengzhang, Yang Quyun, Zheng Shiliang, Chen Qimei, and others in their uprisings.

As early as when Sun Yat-sen founded the anti-Qing Revive China Society (Xingzhonghui), many of its members were from the Hongmen. However, at that time, Sun Yat-sen had not yet joined the Hongmen. Later, to strengthen his forces, Sun Yat-sen sought closer ties with the Hongmen and officially joined in 1903, earning the title "Hong Gun."

Professor Qin Baoqi, through research combining official records, archives, and Hongmen secret texts, concluded that the Hongmen Tiandihui was founded by the Fujian Yunxiao Gaixi monk Wan Tixi, also known as Hong Er He Shang (Monk Hong the Second) or Zheng Kai. The birthplace of the Hongmen Tiandihui is Gaixi in Yunxiao, Fujian.

The founding of the Hongmen Tiandihui in Gaixi, Yunxiao, Fujian aligns with the records in Hongmen secret texts. In Volume 1 of the "Materials on Modern Secret Societies," under the illustrations section, there is a depiction of a "Suzhu Pai" (Bead Tablet) with the note: "The founding ancestor resided in Gaixi, Yunxiao, Fujian."

From Hongmen secret texts, we know the founding ancestor of the Hongmen was Wan Yunlong, also known as Wan Tixi, consistent with official records and archives. The "Imperial Edict" dated January 17, the 54th year of Qianlong’s reign, states: "According to Xingyi’s confession, his father Tixi, also known as Hong Er He Shang, was a monk at Guanyin Pavilion."

Wu Lana also reported: "The criminals (namely Xingyi and Chen Biao) confessed that Tixi had been spreading the Tiandihui at Guanyin Temple in Gaixi since the 27th year of Qianlong’s reign." Thus, the "founding ancestor" living in Gaixi, Yunxiao, Fujian, as mentioned in Hongmen secret texts, is indeed the Hong Er He Shang, Wan Tixi, the monk at Guanyin Temple in Gaixi, as recorded in official documents and archives.

Because Gaixi, Yunxiao, is the birthplace of the Tiandihui, the Hongmen secret texts regard the Gaixi Temple as a sacred site, whether in the Xilu legends, illustrations, poems, or couplets.

Later discovered in the Yao Dagao manuscript, there are over ten mentions of Gaixi and Gaixi Temple. It also describes how Wan Tixi, after forming an alliance with five monks, died in battle against Qing troops. "His remains were buried at the foot of the Sanlou building at Gaixi Temple, in the Fenji Lake area, facing the direction of the Horse and the Noon." Both Gaixi Temple and Sanlou are located near present-day Gaixi Village in Yunxiao.

There is also a verse: "A bright lamp before the Buddha, the Five Ancestors raise their banner to worship ancestors. The ancestral lamp, once lit, must not be consumed, but kept to return to Gaixi to honor the ancestors." These lines also confirm that the Hongmen founding ancestors were indeed in Gaixi.

In the Yang family manuscript of the Hongmen secret texts, it is also stated that Wan Tixi lived at the "Gaixi Temple atop Ding Mountain." In the "Tiandihui Documents Discovered by the Guixian County Gazetteer Compilation Bureau," it is mentioned that people worshipped Wan Yunlong as the elder brother and initiated the "Gaixi Uprising."

In the illustration section of the "Materials on Modern Secret Societies," there is a drawing of Gaixi Temple, with the couplet on its gate: "A stretch of stream and mountain forever beautiful, three rivers and gorges flowing eternally." In the verses, it says: "The land guards the high ridge, a stretch of rivers and mountains forever beautiful; the gate faces the sea, where three river waters merge and flow eternally." The depicted scenery closely resembles that of Gaixi Guanyin Pavilion.

Gaixi Guanyin Pavilion and Gaixi Temple are located in Gaixi Village, Dongxia Town, Yunxiao, Fujian, and are now provincial-level cultural heritage protection units. According to Qing Dynasty archives, in the 26th year of Qianlong’s reign (1761), the monk Tixi founded the Tiandihui at Gaixi Temple. Emperor Qianlong ordered governors-general of Liangguang, Sichuan, and Min-Zhe, among other high-ranking officials, to investigate thoroughly. After two and a half years, it was eventually uncovered by Fujian-Zhejiang Governor-General Wu Tina and Fujian Governor Xu Sizeng, which matches entirely what is recorded in the Hongmen secret texts.

Gaixi Temple is nestled between mountain and sea, facing a bay in front and backed by Liangshan Mountain, offering both accessibility and defensibility, thus making its location extremely secluded and strategically concealed. This contributed to the rise of the massive grassroots secret organization known as the Tiandihui. In April 1993, Professor Qin Baoqi, along with Professors Luo Zhao, Hao Zhiqing, and Chen Zuwu from the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, and over twenty experts and scholars from Switzerland, Germany, the United States, and other countries, conducted an on-site investigation of Gaixi Temple, further confirming it as the founding site of the Hongmen Tiandihui.

It is currently believed that Gaixi Temple was the site where the first five ancestors of the Tiandihui formed their alliance during the Kangxi era of the Qing Dynasty, while Gaixi Guanyin Pavilion is where Tixi, also known as Yunlong Zen Master, officially founded the Tiandihui (Hongmen) in the 26th year of Qianlong’s reign (1761). Both temples are regarded as sacred birthplaces of the "Hongmen."

Besides the Tiandihui, Jin Yong also wrote about the "Red Flower Society" in "The Book and the Sword." However, Jin Yong himself admitted that the Red Flower Society was his own creation and did not exist historically, whereas the Tiandihui was a real historical organization.