In the general impression, Antarctica is an isolated white continent at the edge of the Earth, separated from our green world by vast distances, making it seem unnecessary to carry out large-scale, globally cooperative scientific expeditions. But that’s not the case. After more than 200 years of persistent efforts, as exploration of Antarctica has deepened, it has become increasingly recognized that Antarctica is closely linked to human survival and development. Over the years, people have been fascinated by the polar regions, and the reasons for wanting to uncover the mysteries of the Arctic and Antarctic are many — including personal, scientific, economic, military, and political motivations. For the purposes of conducting research in earth sciences, biology, physics, and oceanography, Antarctica attracts many explorers, scientists, and governments around the world.
In the early days, some explorers and scientists undertook Antarctic expeditions with the support of governments, organizations, or individuals. Modern Antarctic exploration, however, is mainly organized and conducted in a planned and leadership-driven manner by national governments, and China is no exception. China’s Antarctic expeditions hold profound historical significance and important practical value. The Earth is a unified whole, and the formation and evolution of China’s natural environment are part of the Earth’s environmental system. The existence and evolution of Antarctica are closely related to China. For geoscientists, studying the evolution of Antarctica and the ancient Gondwana supercontinent is of great significance for understanding China’s crustal evolution, the formation and distribution of flora and fauna, and mineralization patterns. Climate, which is closely tied to everyone’s life, is a universally important issue of global concern, and climatologists cannot study global climate change without considering Antarctica. Antarctica’s ecosystem is relatively isolated and largely remains in its pristine state, providing excellent conditions for biological research. As the least disturbed continent by humans, Antarctica not only offers historical background information on global environmental changes but also serves as the most valuable “reference zone” for studying current global environmental shifts. Due to its unique geographical location, Antarctica is also an ideal place for space physics and cosmological research. The meteorites preserved in the ice are a precious gift from Antarctica to humanity, and their study helps scientists explore the mysteries of the cosmos and may even unveil the origins of life in the universe. Antarctica’s abundant biological and mineral resources have long attracted human interest, and perhaps in the future, it will be developed as the last mining base for humankind. Of course, the mysterious Antarctic holds many more attractions for scientists, and as exploration deepens, even more significant research topics await discovery.
Who discovered Antarctica?
For centuries, thousands of explorers and scientists from various countries have ventured to Antarctica, with some dedicating their entire lives, even sacrificing them, to the discovery of the southern continent. But who was the first to discover Antarctica? There is still considerable debate to this day. This is partly due to objective factors — the events happened so long ago and evidence is insufficient — and partly subjective, involving territorial claims and national pride. The British explorer James Cook asserted, after two circumnavigations, that a rich southern “unknown continent” could not exist. Yet later, some insisted he was the first to discover Antarctica. The Russian explorers Bellingshausen and Lazarev sighted Alexander I Land near Antarctica, but some claimed they didn’t know what they had seen. Nevertheless, the fearless spirit and perseverance of these early Antarctic pioneers are commendable and worthy of emulation. Their achievements are not only recorded in history but also inspire generations of explorers and scientists to commit to Antarctic scientific research.
Which countries’ explorers were the first to venture to Antarctica?
The earliest seekers of the southern “unknown continent” were from Britain, Russia, the United States, and France.
The British James Cook began searching for the southern continent in 1768, becoming the first to circumnavigate Antarctica, entering the Antarctic Circle, and reaching waters at 71°10′ S. He was a pioneer of Antarctic exploration. Between 1819 and 1821, the British William Smith made five voyages to Antarctic waters and discovered the South Shetland Islands. The Russian Bellingshausen reached Antarctica in 1819, entered the Antarctic Circle, circumnavigated the continent, and in 1821 discovered Peter I Island, not far from the Antarctic mainland. The American Nathaniel Palmer, in 1820, sailed toward the South Shetland Islands and then onward to discover the Antarctic Peninsula. The British James Weddell advanced toward Antarctica in 1822, setting a new southern record by reaching 75°15′ S. The French Dumont d'Urville headed to Antarctica in 1839, discovering a stretch of coastline near the Antarctic Circle and landing on shore.
Starting in 1840, the British James Ross reached 78°11′ S, setting a new southern sailing record. He discovered a continental ice barrier, two volcanoes, multiple islands, and located the South Magnetic Pole, conducting precise measurements.
Who was the first person to reach the South Pole?
On December 14, 1911, the famous Norwegian polar explorer Roald Amundsen, after enduring immense hardship and overcoming numerous obstacles, became the first human to reach the South Pole.
How much do countries invest in Antarctic expeditions?
Antarctic expeditions are long-term and arduous tasks requiring substantial financial and material resources. They are a true reflection of a nation’s comprehensive strength and are primarily carried out as government initiatives. Investment in Antarctic expeditions varies greatly between countries. According to 1999 figures: Argentina invested about $3.5 million, France $26.5 million, Chile $8 million, the United Kingdom around $35 million, New Zealand $7.5 million, Sweden $7.5 million (including Arctic funding), while the United States invested the most at $250 million (including Arctic research funds). China’s polar expedition budget is approximately several million dollars per year. Despite limited funding, China has built and maintained two year-round scientific research stations and one icebreaker, achieving a large number of scientific results, some of which are world-leading — a truly remarkable accomplishment.
What are the weather conditions like at the Great Wall Station?
China’s two Antarctic research stations are located in the marginal zones of Antarctica, where the natural conditions are relatively better. The Great Wall Station is in sub-Antarctic territory, characterized by a typical subpolar maritime climate. Compared to the Antarctic interior, it is milder and more humid. The average temperature in January, the warmest month, is 1.3°C, and in July, the coldest month, it is -8.0°C, with an annual average of around -2°C. The extreme low temperature reaches -26.6°C. Precipitation is frequent throughout the year, with overcast or cloudy days accounting for about 80%, totaling 249 days of precipitation annually, and an average humidity of 88%. The annual precipitation is around 630 mm, mostly in the form of snow, making it one of the warmest and wettest regions in Antarctica. Frequent blizzards are the most notable characteristic of the Great Wall Station. The area experiences frequent polar cyclones, often with southeast to east winds, and peak wind speeds can reach 40.3 m/s. Some months see up to 16 days of strong winds, with over 140 days of gale-force winds (above Beaufort scale 8) per year, making it an ideal site for studying polar cyclonic activity.
What are the weather conditions like at the Zhongshan Station?
Zhongshan Station is located along the coast of the Antarctic continent. Its meteorological elements differ significantly from those of the Great Wall Station, being colder and drier, and more representative of the polar climate. The annual average temperature at Zhongshan Station is around -10°C, with extreme lows reaching -36.4°C. The region is influenced by katabatic winds descending from the inland ice sheet, typically bringing southeast to east winds. Days with gales above Beaufort scale 8 total 174 per year, with peak wind speeds reaching 43.6 m/s. There are 162 days of precipitation annually, with an average humidity of 54% and significantly more sunny days than at the Great Wall Station. Zhongshan Station experiences polar day and polar night phenomena, with 54 consecutive days of continuous daylight and 58 consecutive days of darkness. Both Chinese stations in Antarctica are equipped with meteorological stations, registered with the World Meteorological Organization, and conduct uninterrupted observations of all meteorological elements year-round.
How are supplies transported to Antarctic research stations?
One reason Antarctica was the last place on Earth to be discovered is its remote location and harsh environment, especially the surrounding sea ice that blocks access. Transporting supplies to Antarctic research stations is a major task, as it is far more difficult compared to other parts of the world. Most stations are built along the Antarctic coast, where icebreakers can crash through the ice and navigate close to shore. If the ice is solid enough, unloading is done via sea ice — cargo is lifted by cranes onto the ice beside the ship and then transferred to the station by other vehicles. Fuel can also be supplied via pipelines connected from ship to station. When the ice is broken, small boat unloading is used to transport goods ashore in batches, and helicopters may lift lighter cargo. For inland stations, supplies must be dragged by snow vehicles and sleds across the ice, which is time-consuming, labor-intensive, and risky. As a result, some stations have built ice runway airports nearby, relying mostly on large transport aircraft for quick, convenient, and safe delivery of supplies.
What are the most common challenges during small boat unloading?
A common transport method used by China’s Antarctic expeditions is small boat transport, where small boats or barges are lowered from the main vessel to carry supplies to the shore. However, floating ice along the Antarctic coast often disrupts this process, frequently damaging boat propellers, rudders, and barges — sometimes causing leaks or trapping them in ice. Near Zhongshan Station, small boats getting surrounded by ice almost happens every year. To prepare for emergencies, these boats carry cold-weather clothing, emergency food for several days, and essential communication equipment.
How do you determine your location in Antarctica?
The usual way people determine their location is by using maps, especially detailed large-scale ones. Scientists now use satellite and aerial imagery to create medium-scale maps of Antarctica. But due to the harsh environment, large-scale maps haven’t been fully completed yet. In the endless white expanse of the Antarctic interior, how do researchers pinpoint their location?
Even with maps, the snowy Antarctic plains offer no reference points like a vast ocean, making it impossible to identify one’s position. In early expeditions, explorers tracked the distance and direction traveled by dog sleds or snow vehicles to estimate their rough location. In some areas, they used celestial navigation — observing the sun and stars — similar to traditional maritime methods.
By the late 1980s, Antarctic expeditions widely adopted the advanced Global Positioning System (GPS). This system uses multiple satellites, allowing GPS receivers to obtain signals from at least four satellites simultaneously from any open area on Earth. By analyzing signal differences, it accurately determines longitude, latitude, and elevation in three dimensions. Since the introduction of satellite geodesy technology in Antarctica, positioning has become fast and precise, eliminating concerns about losing direction in the icy wilderness.
What types of Antarctic research stations are there?
Currently, 20 countries have established over 150 scientific bases in Antarctica. These stations can generally be divided into three categories based on function: year-round research stations, summer-only research stations, and unmanned automatic observation stations. Most Antarctic stations are located on coastal rock outcrops or islands, operational only in the summer. Only the United States, Russia (formerly the Soviet Union), and Japan have built year-round stations in the inland ice sheet. Among them, the U.S.’s Amundsen-Scott Station at the South Pole and the former Soviet Union’s Vostok Station are the most well-known.
What is a year-round Antarctic research station like?
Antarctic year-round scientific research stations are generally large in scale, equipped with comprehensive buildings and facilities, and staffed year-round. These stations host numerous scientific research projects with advanced experimental methods, many of which operate continuously even during the harsh winter months when scientific observations must continue uninterrupted. Since they are permanently inhabited, the stations are largely self-sufficient in terms of logistics, transportation, communication, and living equipment to meet the needs of team members. However, staffing typically increases in summer and decreases in winter, with overwintering personnel including both support staff and scientists. Year-round scientific research stations resemble miniature towns built in Antarctica’s icy expanse, hence they are also referred to as Antarctic science cities. Currently, there are over 50 such year-round stations in Antarctica. China’s Great Wall Station and Zhongshan Station are both year-round scientific research stations.
What are Antarctic summer scientific research stations like?
Antarctic summer scientific research stations, as the name suggests, are stations that operate only during the Antarctic summer (November to March of the following year). Before winter arrives, personnel evacuate and the stations are closed until the next summer. Generally, these stations are relatively small, though some are equipped with power, mechanical equipment, and living quarters. Most Antarctic summer stations are considered “branch” or “satellite” stations of year-round stations. They are often established in particularly harsh yet scientifically significant regions. There are currently around 100 such summer stations in Antarctica, with about 70–80 in regular use. China does not have any summer scientific research stations in Antarctica.
What are unmanned automatic observation stations in Antarctica like?
In recent years, with rapid advancements in science and technology—including aerospace technology, satellite observation, radio remote control, and robotics—modern high-tech tools have been increasingly used in Antarctic research. Automated instruments are commonly installed in unmanned stations, transmitting data at scheduled intervals to monitor and understand the region’s natural environment. Unmanned automatic observation stations are becoming more prevalent in Antarctica, with most dedicated to collecting meteorological, geomagnetic, and seismic data.
What is an Antarctic shelter?
Antarctica’s weather is highly unpredictable, especially sudden blizzards that pose serious threats to field researchers. However, such extreme conditions usually last no more than 2–3 days. To provide temporary refuge for scientists in emergencies, many countries have established shelters stocked with food, fuel, communication equipment, and cold-weather gear. These shelters can sustain a few people for days until conditions improve. The shelters are never locked; researchers, tourists, and explorers in distress can enter freely to take shelter, find food, or use warm clothing without payment. This reflects the international humanitarian spirit of rescue and relief in Antarctica.
When did China begin Antarctic expeditions?
China’s Antarctic exploration activities began in the early 1980s. However, as early as the 1920s and 1930s, China published several books on Antarctica, the most famous being *Records of Polar Expeditions*, which introduced various aspects of the continent. After liberation, the media published numerous articles on Antarctica, and publishers released books on its natural geography, biology, minerals, and exploration history. In 1957, Professor Shi Kezhen, then Vice President of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, stated that Chinese people should go to Antarctica to study it. In the 1960s, during the formulation of China’s science and technology development plan, many scientists again proposed Antarctic exploration. When the State Oceanic Administration was officially established, one of the six tasks approved by the State Council and the National People’s Congress Standing Committee included “future polar oceanographic expeditions.” In 1981, the National Antarctic Expedition Committee Office was established. In 1983, the 27th meeting of the 5th National People’s Congress Standing Committee passed China’s decision to join the Antarctic Treaty.
In January 1980, China first sent two scientists to Australia’s Casey Station in Antarctica, marking the beginning of China’s Antarctic exploration. To date, China has dispatched over 50 scientists to conduct research at stations or on expedition vessels of friendly nations. On February 20, 1985, China established its first Antarctic scientific research base—the Great Wall Station—on King George Island in the South Shetland Islands. On February 26, 1989, China built its second research base—the Zhongshan Station—on the Larsemann Hills in East Antarctica.
Why was China’s Great Wall Station located on King George Island?
Antarctica is a barren land, and establishing a station is essential to provide logistical support, including food, shelter, and other necessities for researchers. Thus, every need for Antarctic expeditions must be meticulously prepared domestically, as even minor oversights can lead to major challenges. During the planning phase, selecting the site for China’s Antarctic station was a top priority for the Antarctic Expedition Committee, as it would influence all subsequent operations. Based on a comprehensive understanding of Antarctica’s geography, the committee concluded that while East Antarctica is closer to China (compared to West Antarctica), reaching the East Antarctic mainland without an icebreaker or ice-resistant vessel posed significant risks at the time. Therefore, attention turned to West Antarctica’s Antarctic Peninsula and the South Shetland Islands. Following the experience of Luo Yuru, then Deputy Director of the Antarctic Expedition Committee and Administrator of the State Oceanic Administration, who traveled aboard Argentina’s icebreaker *Bahía Paraíso*, building a station on the Antarctic Peninsula was still deemed highly challenging. Consequently, the committee selected the South Shetland Islands as the site for China’s first Antarctic station. The exact location was determined through field surveys to ensure large bedrock areas, easy ship access, convenient unloading, ample freshwater resources, and suitability for comprehensive scientific research. Eleven potential sites were pre-selected, with the southern part of Fildes Peninsula deemed most ideal—a terraced pebble area with open space, three drinkable freshwater lakes, a long coastline with flat tidal flats for boat landings, and proximity (2.3 km) to Chile’s Marsh Base Airport for transport. In summer, it also features abundant bedrock, thriving lichens and mosses, and habitats for penguins and other birds, making it suitable for multidisciplinary research. Ultimately, China’s Great Wall Station was built here.
Why was China’s Zhongshan Station located on the Larsemann Hills?
For Antarctic scientific research, national authorities began preparations for a station in East Antarctica in the early 1980s. Extensive research was conducted, with experts and scholars visiting Japan’s Syowa Station, the Soviet Union’s Mirny and Progress Stations, the U.S. McMurdo Station, and Australia’s Casey Station to gather construction insights and learn from foreign experience. Field surveys were also carried out along the Antarctic coast from Japan’s Syowa Station, Davis Station, and Mawson Station to the Ross Sea, yielding firsthand data. Based on this, multiple feasibility studies were organized, incorporating expert opinions to finalize the best plan. Two potential sites were pre-selected: the Larsemann Hills in Prydz Bay (near 69°S, 76°E) and the Amundsen Bay coast. Both are bedrock areas, facilitating landings, with abundant freshwater, vast space for expansion, and potential as forward bases for inland expeditions.
In early October 1988, China sent an advance team aboard Australia’s *Icebird* expedition vessel to Antarctica, landing on the Larsemann Hills to survey the proposed site’s geography, natural conditions, freshwater resources, and terrain. The team concluded that the Larsemann Hills offered superior conditions compared to Amundsen Bay. Based on this report, the Antarctic Expedition Committee ultimately decided to build Zhongshan Station on the Larsemann Hills.
Where is China’s Great Wall Station located?
China’s Great Wall Station was established on February 20, 1985, and named after China’s iconic Great Wall. The station’s name was inscribed by President Jiang Zemin on December 30, 1997.
The Great Wall Station is situated at the southern tip of King George Island in the South Shetland Islands, West Antarctica, with coordinates 62°12′59″S, 58°57′52″W. It lies 17,501.949 km from Beijing, bearing 170°38′27″ from the capital. King George Island is the most densely populated area for Antarctic research stations, hosting nine stations from nine countries across its 1,160 km² area. The Great Wall Station complex spans 2 km north-south and 1.26 km east-west, covering 2.52 km² with an average elevation of 10 m.
What buildings are at the Great Wall Station?
Since its establishment, the Great Wall Station has expanded through the 3rd, 5th, and 13th expeditions, now comprising 25 structures with a total floor area of 4,200 m². Key buildings include seven main structures: office, dormitory, medical/sports, meteorology, communications, and research buildings, as well as specialized facilities like solid tide observation rooms, seismic observatories, geomagnetic absolute value labs, upper-atmosphere physics labs, satellite Doppler observatories, and geomagnetic detection rooms. Other facilities include garages, tool sheds, carpentry workshops, refrigerators, and vegetable storage.
What scientific research is conducted at the Great Wall Station?
The Great Wall Station functions as a compact research hub where scientists conduct meteorological, solid tide, satellite Doppler, seismic, geomagnetic absolute value, and upper-atmosphere physics observations. Specialized laboratories—such as those for biology, radio wave propagation, geology, geomorphology and Quaternary geology, geophysics, and microcomputing—enable comprehensive research, experiments, analysis, and data processing.
Chinese Antarctic expedition members conduct routine observations year-round at the Great Wall Station, including meteorology, ionosphere, upper-atmosphere physics, geomagnetism, and seismology. During the Antarctic summer, additional fieldwork covers geology, geomorphology, geophysics, glaciology, biology, environmental science, human medicine, and oceanography.
Where is China’s Zhongshan Station located?
Established on February 26, 1989, China’s Zhongshan Station honors Sun Yat-sen, the great pioneer of China’s democratic revolution. Located on the Vestfold Hills’ West Strand Peninsula in Princess Elizabeth Land, East Antarctica, it sits at 69°22′24″S, 76°22′40″E, 12,553.160 km from Beijing (bearing 32°30′50″). The Vestfold Hills lie within the Antarctic Circle, along Prydz Bay’s southeast coast, southwest of the Amery Ice Shelf and Prince Charles Mountains—making it ideal for marine and terrestrial research. Nearby stations include Australia’s Law Base and Russia’s Progress Station.
What buildings and living facilities are at Zhongshan Station?
Over ten years of expansion, Zhongshan Station now includes 15 buildings (2,700 m²) such as offices, dormitories, meteorology, research, recreational, power generation, and garage structures.
The station fully supports work and life. It accommodates 60 summer and 25 winter personnel, with dormitories featuring multifunctional beds, sofas, desks, and wardrobes (maintained at 16–20°C year-round). A fully automated hot/cold water system ensures uninterrupted supply, while showers provide water ≥40°C. The station has over ten vehicles (including three German PB240 snowmobiles for winter expeditions). Power comes from three 150 kW and one 30 kW diesel generators. The clinic includes surgical tools for minor procedures. Communications feature 1.6 kW single-sideband transmitters, full-band receivers, and maritime satellite terminals for global data, image, and voice transmission. Like the Great Wall Station, Zhongshan Station has wastewater and waste management systems. Generators also include emission-reduction devices to minimize pollution.
What scientific research is conducted at Zhongshan Station?
Zhongshan Station houses laboratories with analytical instruments for preliminary sample studies. Its meteorological field, solid tide room, seismic/geomagnetic lab, and upper-atmosphere physics facility are equipped for observations. Routine year-round projects include meteorology, ionosphere, upper-atmosphere physics, geomagnetism, and seismology.
Excerpt from: China Science Exploration Alliance