To fulfill his promise, Sun Yat-sen submitted his resignation to the Provisional Senate, recommending Yuan Shikai as successor to the provisional presidency on the condition that he assume office in Nanjing. Cai Yuanpei, Song Jiaoren, and others were even dispatched north to welcome Yuan, but the wily old fox still found an excuse to take office in Beijing.
Speaking of Yuan Shikai, calling him a towering figure of his era would likely raise no objections. His life was filled with legend—rising meteorically in the late Qing dynasty amid shifting tides, even serving in the Grand Council alongside Zhang Zhidong. After the Guangxu Emperor ascended the throne, Prince Chun Zaiyi acted as regent. Both Zaiyi and Empress Dowager Longyu, harboring grudges from the Hundred Days' Reform, advocated for Yuan’s execution. Only after Zhang Zhidong’s strong plea did they relent, instead ordering him to resign on grounds of foot illness and return to his hometown.
Yuan Keding Urges Imperial Ascension
Yuan Shikai’s dismissal was his greatest career blow. By the third year of the Xuantong reign, he staged a comeback, becoming the Premier of the Cabinet and regaining supreme power. At the time, the orphaned (Puyi) and widowed (Longyu) of the Aisin Gioro clan had no choice but to submit to his will. After the Qing court issued the abdication edict, he transformed first into president, then into the "Hongxian Emperor" for just 83 days. As president, he could have achieved much in domestic and foreign affairs, but ignorant of democratic governance and egged on by his son Yuan Keding, he committed the absurd act of proclaiming himself emperor in 1916. This led to the National Protection War against him, widespread defection, and his ultimate downfall. Consumed by frustration, he died in despair.
Yuan Shikai (1859–1916), courtesy name Weiting, also known as Master Rong’an, was born in Xiangcheng, Henan. His father, Yuan Baozhong, served as an acting prefect. Yuan Shikai was adopted by his uncle Yuan Baoqing in childhood. After Baoqing’s death, he studied in Yanjing under his cousin Yuan Baohe. Initially failing the imperial exams, he abandoned scholarship for the military, joining the Huai Army. In May 1881, he traveled to Dengzhou, Shandong, to join Wu Changqing (a famed Huai Army general and sworn brother of Yuan Baoqing), serving as deputy head of the Qing Army’s logistics office. The next year, he accompanied Wu’s troops to Korea, earning recognition for his role in the Korean expedition and was appointed as a prefectural official. By spring 1884, with the Sino-French War erupting and coastal tensions rising, Wu’s forces were redeployed to Jinzhou, leaving Yuan in charge of rear operations. Wu petitioned Li Hongzhang, Viceroy of Zhili, to appoint Yuan as head of Qing Army logistics and Korean defense affairs. He remained in Korea until recalled before the First Sino-Japanese War in 1894.
After the Sino-Japanese War defeat, the Qing court deemed the Huai Army unreliable and sought to train a new force. In October 1895, Yuan Shikai was ordered to establish a training camp at Xiaozhan, recruiting officers partly from veteran Huai Army commanders and partly from graduates of the Tianjin Military Academy. Figures like Wang Shizhen, Duan Qirui, Feng Guozhang, Chen Guangyuan, Wang Zhanyuan, Zhang Huaizhi, Lei Zhenchun, Tian Zhongyu, Meng Enyuan, Lu Jianzhang, Cao Kun, and Duan Zhigui initially held deputy commander ranks, while Xu Shichang assisted in logistics. The future "Beiyang Warlords" largely emerged from this group.
In 1899 (the 24th year of Guangxu’s reign), as the Guangxu Emperor pushed for reforms, the reformist Tan Sitong suggested leveraging Yuan Shikai to strip conservative Viceroy Ronglu of his military power. Instead, Yuan informed Ronglu, who reported it to the court, alleging the reformists threatened Empress Dowager Cixi. Enraged, Cixi orchestrated the Hundred Days' Reform crackdown. Yuan, rewarded for his tip-off, was promoted to Shandong governor. Throughout his Qing-era rise, Yuan owed his fortunes to Wu Changqing’s mentorship, Li Hongzhang’s patronage, protection from Weng Tonghe and Li Hongzao, and finally Ronglu’s sponsorship.
During the 1900 Boxer Rebellion, Yuan Shikai joined the Southeast Mutual Protection pact. After Li Hongzhang’s death in 1901, he took over as Zhili governor. The following year, he formally assumed the dual roles of Zhili governor and Viceroy of Beiyang, becoming the Qing court’s foremost central authority. Major policies often required his counsel via the Grand Council. His clout and responsibilities surpassed those of other provincial governors. Yet his immense power and military control unsettled the imperial clan, forcing his resignation in 1908 (the 34th year of Guangxu’s reign) on grounds of foot illness, sending him back to Henan.
After the 1911 Wuchang Uprising, the Qing court recalled Yuan Shikai. In September, he became Premier of the Cabinet. After forming his cabinet, he subtly prompted frontline generals like Duan Qirui to advocate republicanism. When Sun Yat-sen assumed the provisional presidency in January 1912, Yuan was displeased. On January 15, Sun and Yuan agreed that if the Qing emperor abdicated, Yuan would be named provisional president. Yuan then pressured the Qing court, leading to Puyi’s abdication edict. On February 15, the Nanjing Senate elected Yuan provisional president and urged his southern relocation. Citing a Beijing mutiny, Yuan instead took office in Beijing on March 10.
Provincial Independence Infuriates Him into Illness
In the 1913 National Assembly elections, Song Jiaoren formed the Kuomintang (KMT) coalition to promote party politics, with Sun Yat-sen as nominal chairman and Song as acting leader, aiming to counter Yuan via legislative majority. On March 20, Song was assassinated. On July 12, the Second Revolution erupted, but Sun and Huang Xing soon fled to Japan and Southeast Asia. Post-rebellion, Yuan coerced the National Assembly into electing him formal president. After victory, he dissolved the Assembly, abolished the 1912 Provisional Constitution, and enacted a new one granting him sweeping powers, extending his term to ten years with re-election rights.
In short, Yuan Shikai became not just an autocrat but a lifelong president. When World War I broke out in 1914, Japan seized Qingdao and German concessions, then demanded the Twenty-One Demands. To secure Japanese diplomatic support, Yuan accepted the first four demands on May 9, 1915. Later, Yang Du and others founded the Peace Planning Society to promote constitutional monarchy. On December 12, Yuan accepted the monarchy, declaring 1916 the "Hongxian Era" with a coronation planned for New Year’s Day. This imperial ambition sparked nationwide backlash. On December 25, 1915, Cai E rose up in Yunnan. Facing military defeats and mass defections, Yuan postponed the coronation before finally abolishing the monarchy on March 22, 1916, yet clinging to the presidency. But provincial secessions mounted, and Yuan, humiliated and furious, fell ill with uremia, dying on June 6 at age 58.
Numerous biographies of Yuan Shikai exist. *The Opening and Closing of Yuan Shikai* details his journey from Xiaozhan training camp to presidency to imperial aspirations, including his inseparable ties with Duan Qirui. Were there clashes between them? How did Duan serve Yuan, and how did Yuan treat Duan? These secrets remain known only to insiders. Xue Guanlan, grandson of late Qing statesman Xue Fucheng and son-in-law of Yuan Shikai, as well as a relative of Duan, offers unique insights into political intrigue, recounting only what he witnessed firsthand.
To fulfill his promise, Sun Yat-sen submitted his resignation to the Provisional Senate, recommending Yuan Shikai as successor to the provisional presidency on the condition that he assume office in Nanjing. Cai Yuanpei, Song Jiaoren, and others were even dispatched north to welcome Yuan, but the wily old fox still found an excuse to take office in Beijing. The articles *Dr. Sun Yielded the Presidency – Yuan Shikai Refused to Come South* and *Recollections of Yuan Shikai’s Reluctance to Assume the Presidency in Nanjing* delve deeper.
On December 25, 1915, Cai E, Tang Jiyao, and others jointly declared Yunnan’s independence, launching the National Protection Movement—a southwestern uprising against Yuan. Veteran journalist Huang Tianshi, who served in Yunnan’s military administration in his youth and later represented Tang Jiyao in Hunan and Guangdong, commemorated the 57th anniversary of the Yunnan Uprising with the balanced, enduring essay *An Objective Analysis of the Yunnan Uprising’s History*. (To be continued)