Additionally, Lin Xi, a renowned Hong Kong-based chronicler of anecdotes, is none other than the well-known historian Gao Boyu. He discovered the autobiography of American doctor Dr. William Sharpe in the University of Hong Kong Library. Chapter Eight of the autobiography features an article titled “Operation on Chinese Royalty,” which inspired Gao Boyu to translate and write “The Record of Yuan Keding’s Treatment.” It provides first-hand accounts of how Yuan Shikai enlisted this doctor, how the physician traveled to Yuan’s retreat, the Huan Shang Yang Shou Garden, to perform brain surgery on Yuan’s heir apparent, Yuan Keding, in an attempt to treat his leg ailment.
Differing Interpretations: Supporters and Opponents of Yuan Shikai
Yuan Shikai’s second son, Yuan Kewen (also known as Han Yun), was exceptionally intelligent from a young age. He began learning characters at six, studied the classics and history at seven, and practiced writing essays at ten. “He had an extraordinary memory and was capable of composing poetry and ci lyrics by fifteen, already demonstrating remarkable talent.” His poetry and prose were praised in his time as “lofty, refined, ancient, and uniquely elegant.” Beyond that, he displayed exceptional artistic talent from an early age. Between 1906 and 1908, while living in Tianjin and Tanggu with his father, he associated with senior literati such as Luo Yingong, Wu Baochu, and Fang Dishan, forming a deep connection with ancient artifacts, calligraphy, paintings, and literary works. He was known for his romantic and carefree character and was counted among the “Four Young Masters.” A few historians even compared him to “the Cao Zhi of modern times.” The article “Yuan Han Yun, Who Proclaimed Himself the ‘Lord of Romance’” offers a detailed account. The book The Rise and Fall of Yuan Shikai compiles firsthand accounts from those who lived through the era, presenting many differing perspectives on the details surrounding the “support for Yuan” and “overthrow of Yuan,” offering valuable insights that supplement official history and provide researchers with alternative interpretations.
The Rise and Fall of the Beiyang Warlords The prefaces to The Beiyang Warlords: Dominating a Region and The Beiyang Warlords — Collapse and Extinction discuss the term “Beiyang,” which stands in contrast to “Nanyang.” In the fifth year of the Tongzhi reign during the Qing Dynasty (1866), the Viceroy of Liangjiang (governing present-day Jiangsu, Anhui, and Jiangxi, with its seat in Nanjing) was additionally tasked with managing trade at the five treaty ports and was appointed the Viceroy of Southern Trade. Then, in the ninth year of the Tongzhi reign (1870), the Viceroy of Zhili (governing present-day Hebei, also serving as provincial governor, based in Tianjin, but relocating to Baoding during winter when the river froze) was given authority over trade at the three treaty ports and appointed the Viceroy of Northern Trade. This marked the beginning of the terms “Beiyang” and “Nanyang.”
In October 1895, Yuan Shikai was ordered to train troops at Xiaozhan. The officers and commanders he employed included both veteran generals from the Huai Army and graduates of the Tianjin Military Academy. Aside from Yuan Shikai himself, nearly all the key figures of the later Beiyang warlords came from the original Xiaozhan group, such as the “Three Northern Warlords”: Wang Shizhen, Duan Qirui, and Feng Guozhang; as well as those who later became provincial military governors or touring inspectors, including Li Chun, Cao Kun, Wu Peifu, Wang Zhanyuan, Chen Guangyuan, Duan Zhigui, Ni Sichong, Lu Jianzhang, Zhang Huaizhi, Zhang Jingyao, Tian Zhongyu, Lu Yongxiang, Qi Xieyuan, and Sun Chuanfang. Even Zhang Xun, who later attempted to restore the monarchy, once served at Xiaozhan, while Feng Yuxiang, who rose from the rank of private, and revolutionary figures like Sun Yue were also originally part of Yuan Shikai’s forces. Beyond the military men, Yuan Shikai also recruited a group of civilian officials during his subsequent rise, such as Xu Shichang, Zhu Jiabao, Zhou Ziqi, Liang Shiyi, Cao Rulin, Lu Zongyu, and Wang Yitang. These individuals rose and fell with the shifting fortunes of the Beiyang faction and played prominent roles on the political stage during the late Qing and early Republican periods. The “Beiyang warlords” of the early Republican era largely originated from this time.
Military Men Usurping the Nation, Bringing Calamity to the People
Later, Yuan Shikai succeeded Li Hongzhang as Viceroy of Zhili and concurrently held the post of Viceroy of Northern Trade. Since he also commanded what was then the most powerful army, his forces came to be known as the Beiyang Army. The Beiyang Era was a crucial period in modern Chinese history, spanning from 1912 to 1928. During Yuan Shikai’s lifetime, the Beiyang faction remained unified—essentially the Yuan Shikai faction. After his death, however, various factions vied for dominance, none willing to defer to the others, leading to fragmentation. This gave rise to names such as the Anhui Clique and the Zhili Clique. Following the Zhili-Anhui War, the Fengtian Clique emerged, and after the Zhili-Fengtian War, the National Pacification Army Clique came to prominence. Added to these were the so-called Shandong Clique, the New Zhili Clique, the Queue-Wearing Army, and others—it was truly a case of “you take the stage, I take the stage,” a revolving door of power, like a revolving lantern with scene after scene unfolding.
The Anhui Clique was led by Duan Qirui, with Xu Shuzheng and Zeng Yuzhen as his chief strategists. The Zhili Clique was more complex, as it went through two phases: the earlier phase was led by Feng Guozhang, with prominent figures including Cao Kun, Li Chun, Wang Zhanyuan, and Chen Guangyuan. After Feng Guozhang stepped down from his role as acting president, his leadership of the Zhili Clique also ended, marking the true beginning of the Zhili Clique’s main act, with Cao Kun and Wu Peifu as the leading protagonists. After the decline of the Zhili Clique came the so-called New Zhili Clique, represented by Sun Chuanfang. The Fengtian Clique was consistently led by Zhang Zuolin from beginning to end. The National Pacification Army Clique, also known as the Northwestern Army Clique or the Feng Yuxiang Clique, was another major force. As for the Shandong Clique (also called the Zhili-Shandong Army Clique), it emerged at the tail end of the Beiyang warlord era, referring to the combined forces of Li Jinglin, the Governor of Zhili, and Zhang Zongchang, the Governor of Shandong. However, after the defeat of the National Pacification Army Clique, this Zhili-Shandong allied force came to be dominated by Zhang Zongchang.
The Beiyang Era was marked by military interference in politics, military seizure of state power, and immense harm to the nation. The book The Beiyang Warlords — Dominating a Region compiles firsthand observations from many former Beiyang figures, such as Xue Guanlan, Xue Dakuo, and Li Beitao, revealing many lesser-known secrets. Additionally, Jiang Ping’s article “The Reasons and Process Behind Feng Yuxiang’s Murder of Xu Shuzheng” meticulously examines the killing of Xu Shuzheng, getting closer to the truth. Jin Dianrong’s “My Connection with Feng Yuxiang” provides an intimate look at Feng Yuxiang during his time at Mount Tai. Zhu Jiaqiao’s “The Scandal of Cao Kun’s Bribery in the Presidential Election” offers an extremely detailed account of Cao Kun’s election bribery, citing telegrams and reports from Beijing newspapers at the time—making it an invaluable historical resource. Historical truths often lie in the details, and it is because of these details that we can better discern some of the realities.
Over the seventeen years of the Beiyang warlords, there were countless layers and constant changes. Feng Yuxiang became famous as the “General Who Changed Sides.” Initially, as a mixed brigade commander stationed in Hubei, he issued a telegram opposing Duan Qirui—this was his first defection against Duan. In 1915, while stationed in Chengdu, he opposed General Chen (?), marking his second defection against a Sichuan general. In 1924, during the Second Zhili-Fengtian War, he was bribed by Zhang Zuolin, returned to Beijing, and imprisoned President Cao Kun in Yanqing Tower, leading to the decisive defeat of the Zhili Army—this was his third defection against Cao and Wu. In 1925, he secretly ordered Zhang Zhijiang, a brigade commander stationed in Langfang, to assassinate Xu Shuzheng, a close confidant of Duan Qirui, and threatened Duan, then in power, to step down in Beijing—this was his fourth defection against Duan Qirui. As for his collaboration with Yan Xishan in launching the Central Plains War, that was considered his fifth defection against Nationalist Government Chairman Chiang Kai-shek. However, he never expected to die aboard a ship in the Black Sea, proving that those who rely too much on cunning often perish because of it.
Generally speaking, Wu Peifu’s successes came from achieving victory against the odds. He triumphed by rallying demoralized troops and striking with one determined push. Fortunately, his enemies were initially the arrogant troops of the Anhui Clique, and later the complacent soldiers of Zhang Zuolin’s Fengtian forces. However, he failed to fully consider or make good use of his victories, thus only shining briefly without achieving lasting success. After suffering defeat in the Second Zhili-Fengtian War, he remained steadfast in his vow not to seek refuge in foreign concessions. First, he moved south along the coast, then journeyed up the Yangtze River, lingering in Zhengzhou and Luoyang, staying at Mount Jigong, briefly residing in Huanggang, taking shelter in Yueyang, until he re-emerged at Cha Jiadun in Hankou. His circuitous journey and indomitable spirit were beyond compare for any former leader who had stepped down from power. The political situation of the Beiyang era, spanning seventeen years, saw the rise and fall of presidents, parliaments, cabinets, major warlords, and minor military leaders—like scenes in a play or moves in a chess game. Whether due to victories or defeats in factional wars or shifts in the balance of power, the rise and fall occurred abruptly, giving rise to the turbulent history of the period. The book The Beiyang Warlords — Collapse and Extinction bears witness to this history. (Series Conclusion)