The assassination of Song Jiaoren in Shanghai gradually escalated tensions, with a standoff emerging between the Beijing government and the Kuomintang. Governors of the four southeastern provinces successively issued telegrams in solidarity with the National Assembly members, opposing Yuan Shikai’s large foreign loan, creating an increasingly aggressive momentum.
It is regrettable that he failed the imperial examination for the position of *Juren* three times in a row, losing face as a master of the eight-legged essay. He often asked himself, “Could it be that my writing is inferior to others? Or perhaps I simply lack the fortune to become a *Xiaolian* (successful candidate in the imperial examinations)?” By the 19th year of Emperor Guangxu’s reign, when the provincial examinations were held again, he hired a “proxy test-taker” at great expense to sit the exam for him. A man who was himself skilled in writing suddenly needed to hire someone else to take the test for him. By all rights, he should have stayed out of sight, but driven by his own urge to test his skills, he also took on the job of writing exams for others at a low price.
He could not let go of the ambition for the governorship.
According to research by the renowned scholar of anecdotes Gao Boyu, there were quite a few notable figures among the successful candidates of that year. The famous Kang Youwei (also known as Kang Youwei) passed the exam, Liang Shiyi’s father Bao San was also successful, Jiang Kongyi passed, and he also succeeded while writing the exam for Li Qiaofen. Overjoyed, Xia Gong immediately composed a couplet to boast of his own cleverness:
A master of writing who hires a proxy, not acting honorably if trying to deceive others;
A wealthy man who sets off firecrackers, becoming a deity simply by making it across.
“Setting off firecrackers” was a term used during the imperial examination era for someone who passed while acting as a proxy test-taker. Xia Gong, who was himself a skilled writer, acted as a proxy, and though he was a wealthy man (often uneducated), he still managed to pass—truly something to be proud of. More than ten years later, Xia Gong passed the imperial examination of the 30th year of Guangxu (the 1904 Jia Chen examination), ranking 27th in the second class, becoming one of the last successful candidates of the late Qing imperial examinations. He entered the Hanlin Academy and was thus also known as Scholar Jiang. He was appointed as a *Shujishi* (a probationary senior compiler) and returned to Guangzhou to assist the Viceroy of Liangguang, Cen Chunxuan, in establishing new-style schools. He repurposed the site of the old examination hall into the Guangdong-Liangguang Advanced Normal School (later renamed the Higher Normal School, then Guangdong University, and eventually Sun Yat-sen University). He played a significant role in closing down the Changshou Temple and confiscating its assets to fund the school. Due to his efforts, local officials petitioned that he be exempted from the usual probationary period and directly appointed as a compiler in the Hanlin Academy. Later, he used his own funds to purchase the position of a provisional intendant of Jiangsu, but before he could take up the post, the Qing dynasty fell.
When the Xinhai Revolution broke out, Xia Gong quickly adapted to the changing situation, cutting off his queue first and supporting the revolution against the Manchus. He did so merely to secure an official position. Unexpectedly, after Hu Hanmin took over as Viceroy of Guangdong, he paid little attention to Xia Gong. Whenever Xia Gong made requests, they were mostly rejected by Hu Hanmin. Chen Jiongming, a Hakka from Huizhou, was not very familiar with the background of the Guangzhou gentry. Seeing that Xia Gong was talented and appeared capable both in literature and military affairs—his residence at Taishi Lane in Henan, Guangzhou, was often filled with guests and never lacked wine—Chen Jiongming alone showed favor to Xia Gong. Thus, Chen Jiongming and Xia Gong became close associates. Liang Shiyi, Secretary-General of Yuan Shikai’s Presidential Office, was a Hanlin scholar from the 1894 Guangxu examination, while Jiang Xia Gong was a Hanlin scholar from the 1904 Guangxu examination. In the past, they were both considered esteemed scholars in the golden halls, fellow Cantonese, and as senior and junior figures, they had naturally formed a warm traditional friendship when they met in Beijing during the Qing dynasty.
Dissatisfied with Hu Hanmin’s lack of cooperation and the absence of personal gain, and realizing Chen Jiongming’s inner thoughts—he couldn’t let go of the ambition for the Guangdong governorship—Xia Gong reportedly arranged a secret meeting with Chen Jiongming at his Taishi Mansion one night. Xia Gong indicated that he had a prior relationship with Liang Shiyi and could travel to Beijing to help Chen Jiongming remove Hu Hanmin, allowing Chen to take over as Viceroy of Guangdong. Upon hearing this, Chen Jiongming found it perfectly agreeable and presented Xia Gong with a substantial sum of money as travel expenses for his trip to Beijing. Xia Gong, being skilled in socializing and worldly-wise, naturally spoke eloquently to Yuan Shikai. Yuan Shikai was very pleased and personally instructed Liang Shiyi to provide proper hospitality.
At the time, Liang Shiyi had told Xia Gong that the Beijing government’s policy toward the nation’s provinces required the separation of military and civil governance—the governors would handle military affairs while separate civil governors would manage civil administration. He mentioned that if Xia Gong could ensure Chen Jiongming’s genuine support for the Beijing government, Xia Gong would be internally designated as the civil governor of Guangdong. Xia Gong was overjoyed and stayed in Beijing, awaiting good news.
The Dream of Becoming Civil Governor Shattered
At that time, the assassination of Song Jiaoren in Shanghai gradually escalated tensions, with a standoff emerging between the Beijing government and the Kuomintang. Governors of the four southeastern provinces successively issued telegrams in solidarity with the National Assembly members, opposing Yuan Shikai’s large foreign loan, creating an increasingly aggressive momentum. Yuan Shikai, humiliated and furious, dismissed the governors of the four southeastern provinces—Cheng Dequan of Jiangsu, Bai Wenwei of Anhui, Li Liejun of Jiangxi, and Hu Hanmin of Guangdong—during the summer and autumn of 1913. He then appointed Chen Jiongming as the Viceroy of Guangdong.
Soon after, Li Liejun raised the anti-Yuan flag at Hukou in Jiangxi. Wang Jingwei, entrusted by Huang Xing, traveled south from Shanghai to urge Chen Jiongming in Guangdong to declare independence and join the anti-Yuan front. Chen Jiongming, a man driven by self-interest, originally hoped to rely on Yuan Shikai to become the “King of the South.” Being persuaded to declare independence against Yuan was certainly not to his liking.
Therefore, Wang Jingwei specially invited Zhu Zhixin to accompany him on this trip. Wang Jingwei was a senior member of the party, and Zhu Zhixin was Chen Jiongming’s mentor, someone Chen deeply respected. With the combined efforts of the two and their persuasive rhetoric, they managed to convince Chen Jiongming within a single night.
Chen Jiongming issued a telegram declaring war on Yuan Shikai. The most embarrassed person at this time was Jiang Xia Gong, who remained in Beijing. Yuan Shikai summoned Jiang Xia Gong to the Presidential Office for questioning, speaking harshly, with even Liang Shiyi unable to help. Fortunately, Xia Gong was an intelligent and eloquent man. He argued, “Everyone can have a son, but no one can have their son’s heart. Chen Jiongming’s fickleness was unexpected. Kongyi’s lack of caution is beyond excuse.” Though Yuan Shikai still looked angry, Liang Shiyi mediated on his behalf, and Xia Gong was able to leave. He then returned south by boat. His dream of becoming the civil governor of Guangdong was shattered—this time, Chen Jiongming had dragged him down significantly.
In 1915, Xia Gong was hired as the southern China general agent for the British-American Tobacco Company, engaging in fierce commercial competition with the Nanyang Brothers Tobacco Company. The Nanyang Brothers Tobacco Company was founded by the Jian brothers from Nanhai—Jian Zhao’nang and Jian Yujie. Xia Gong claimed that Nanyang Tobacco was backed by Japanese capital, with the Japan-nationalized Jian Zhao’nang managing operations. This strategy proved effective during a time when the Japanese government pressured China to sign the Twenty-One Demands, sparking nationwide anti-Japanese sentiment and boycotts of Japanese goods. As a result, Nanyang Tobacco’s business plummeted, while British-American Tobacco’s sales soared. According to Gao Boyu’s writings, Xia Gong earned an annual income of 200,000 yuan, though some claimed it was even more. But judging by his extravagant spending, it was clear he had made a fortune.
In 1930, Xia Gong returned to live in Guangzhou. He leased over a thousand acres of government wasteland in Luogang Cave in the suburbs to establish the Jiang Lanzhai Farm and Bee Farm. He improved fruit varieties and introduced high-quality foreign bees, yielding renowned products such as Luogang oranges, black lychees, and golden honey, which remain famous to this day. His concubine Rui Xin, fifth son Yu Gui, and eleventh daughter Wan Zheng served as farm manager, technician, and other roles respectively, turning it into a true family enterprise. He also developed a small railway from Nangang to Luogang Market and invested in water conservancy projects, exhausting his wealth. In 1938, when Guangzhou fell to the Japanese, Xia Gong fled with his family to Hong Kong, and the Jiang Lanzhai Farm was shut down. (To be continued)