Modern periodization training theory includes: training structure, training periodization, training cycles, and cyclical training.
Around the 1980s, some scholars questioned the scientific validity of the modern periodization training theory established by Soviet scholar Matveyev, sparking years of academic debate. However, the vast majority of scholars and coaches still believe that: the basic laws of the cyclical training process and the corresponding modern periodization training theory have not become outdated but have instead developed and become more enriched and refined. The so-called cycle refers to the process of development that is repetitive and cyclical in nature; the so-called training cycle refers to a training process that exhibits the characteristic of being cyclical and repetitive; the so-called training periodization refers to dividing a certain cyclical training process into more lower-level training processes that also possess cyclical characteristics. Cyclical training, on the other hand, refers to the necessity for the sports training process to follow the biological rhythm changes of the athlete's body, as well as the resulting periodic laws governing the formation and development of competitive states, along with the periodic variations of natural conditions such as major competition schedules, climate seasons, and the periodic arrangements of the athletes' study, work, and life, as well as the laws of training adaptability formation and the rhythmic arrangement of load and recovery interactions. Among these, the biological rhythm changes of the athlete's body and the resulting laws governing the formation and development of competitive states are the most important basis for dividing training cycles, and training is arranged cyclically according to certain dynamic rhythms, repetitiveness, cyclical patterns, and gradually increasing methods. Its primary purpose is to enable athletes to timely and effectively form their optimal competitive state around the needs of competitions, thereby achieving the best possible competitive results.
Based on this, the training cycles of all training processes are divided into preparatory cycles, fundamental or competitive cycles, and recovery or transitional cycles. The so-called training structure refers to the relatively complete and relatively stable combination of the various components within the training process, reflecting the intrinsic connections among the various components throughout the entire training process. The integrity of the training process is built upon an optimally structured training framework, and the components of the training structure exhibit regularity, coherence, longevity, and systematic connections. These connections are manifested both in the mutual transfer relationships among the various elements of training content (such as the transfer between general training and specific training, physical training and technical-tactical training, etc.), as well as in the vertical systemic coherence among the various components of the training process (such as the systemic coherence from unit training within a single session to multi-year training). L.P. Matveyev, building on the research achievements of his predecessors, established modern periodization training theory and proposed three fundamental training cycle structures within the training process: the microstructure (mainly referring to unit training, session training, daily training, and weekly training cycle structures), the mesostructure (mainly referring to cycle training structures within phase training), and the macrostructure (mainly referring to annual and multi-year training cycle structures). Each structure also shows obvious cyclical connections in the arrangement of training content and load, thereby forming a complete set of cycle training theories that encompass unit training, session cycles, weekly cycles (microcycles), phase cycles (mesocycles), annual cycles, and multi-year cycles (macrocycles) within the training process.
The Establishment of Rhythm Theory and the Overall Structural Model of Training Cycles Rhythm refers to the intrinsic laws of periodic changes in things and the dynamic characteristics of variation. Non-sports-related rhythms related to modern training include cosmic rhythms, social rhythms, natural rhythms, and biological rhythms. From the perspective of competitive sports, there are training rhythms (such as load rhythms, movement rhythms, etc.) and competition rhythms (such as competition density, performance rhythms, etc.). The ultimate goal of these rhythms is to form a biological rhythm of athletic ability that aligns with the competitive states of each training process, and based on this, enable athletes to ultimately achieve their optimal competitive state during competitions. Nowadays, many factors that make up the training process have reached their own limits. Therefore, understanding the crucial role of biological rhythms in the functional activities of athletes, and utilizing their regularities to predict the athletes' states and rationally arrange training plans, will undoubtedly help align training and competition rhythms as closely as possible with the athletes' own biological rhythms and external natural rhythms. This approach ensures the most rational and economical mobilization of one’s internal potential, improves training and competition effectiveness, reduces the occurrence of injuries, allows athletes to normally perform at their trained levels during competitions, and achieve the best possible athletic results. As shown in Table 6, in various cyclical training processes, athletes’ athletic abilities demonstrate certain rhythmic patterns. The Training Theoretical Interpretation of Early-Stage Training Period Arrangement Principles Attention should be paid to the following training theoretical points in the training arrangements of early foundational training stages:
(1) Emphasize the systematicness and coherence of training cycle arrangements. Maintain the intrinsic connections and natural, orderly transitions and bridges between different hierarchical cycles, preserving the unity of systematicness, rhythmicity, and periodicity in training.
(2) Cyclical training arrangements should maintain relative stability and flexibility. The specific timing, structure, and content, methods and means, as well as load arrangements for each cycle, are not exactly the same with each cycle, and should be adjusted and modified according to specific circumstances.
(3) When dividing cycles, fully consider factors with periodic variation patterns. Especially in early training stages, factors such as school studies, exams, and holidays should be taken into account. A comprehensive consideration of all factors is necessary, with greater attention given to those exhibiting periodic variation, particularly the laws of competitive state formation and development.
(4) Appropriately determine the structure of each training cycle. Correctly grasp the internal and external factors of the athlete’s body and rationally define the time and phase structure of each training cycle.
(5) Select the most suitable type of cycle. Based on the characteristics of different sports, individuals, tasks, and main competition arrangements, choose the most appropriate type of training cycle. Early training stages mostly use single-cycle and double-cycle types.
Training Process Theory
The Positioning of the Training Process and Early Training Process Sports training is essentially a process of cultivating outstanding sports talent through physical education and practical training activities. This process is composed of basic training activities such as unit training, session training, daily training, weekly training, phase training, annual training, and multi-year training, and is regulated through control steps such as the diagnosis of training states, determination of training goals, establishment of training control models, formulation of training plans, implementation of training plans, and feedback monitoring of the training process. The early training process is an initial stage within an athlete’s multi-year systematic training process. As an indispensable part of the multi-year systematic training process, the study of the early training process naturally cannot be separated from the connections between various aspects of the multi-year systematic training process. In recent years, premature specialization training has occurred in China’s early training. The main reason is the disconnection from the multi-year systematic training process, focusing only on localized studies and arrangements of early training, leading to a misalignment in early training functions and directly affecting its scientific validity.
The Duration and Age Range of Full-Process Multi-Year Training and Early Training Processes Multi-year training processes mainly include full-process multi-year training and interval-based multi-year training. Full-process multi-year training and its duration refer to the total time required from the start of training to the end of an athlete’s sporting career, as well as the time intervals of each multi-year phase. The age boundaries of multi-year training refer to the starting and ending ages related to the training duration, as well as the age ranges of each multi-year training phase. The full multi-year training process includes six stages: general foundation, specific foundation, specific improvement, peak specific competition, and maintenance of specific competition. Early training only covers the first two stages, making it essentially an interval-based multi-year training process within the full multi-year training process. The laws of athlete development and multi-year training show that early training during childhood and adolescence is a crucial foundational process, with its training outcomes directly influencing whether an athlete can eventually succeed. Childhood and adolescence mark the beginning of the full multi-year training process. It is essential to predict the future development level and trends of the selected individual’s athletic abilities from the outset. Based on this, planning for both full-process and interval training for the identified child or adolescent athletes should be carried out. Training for child and adolescent athletes should not solely focus on achieving higher results in the future. It opposes short-sighted "forcing growth" training driven by impatience for quick success, and instead follows the planning of long-term training processes, completing the tasks set by training plans stage by stage, scientifically regulating the entire training process, ensuring that the specialized performance shown at each stage is consistent with the corresponding foundational training level of that stage. The more scientific an athlete’s systematic training arrangement is, the longer their sporting career will be, and vice versa. Different sports display varying characteristics: skill-based sports begin training at a younger age and end earlier, with shorter systematic training durations; endurance and maximal strength-based physical sports begin systematic training later and end later, with relatively longer training durations; while intellectual and psychological sports span even broader, with even longer training durations. The longer the training duration, the more emphasis should be placed on planning the early systematic training process for children and adolescents. Childhood and adolescence are critical stages of physical growth and development, primarily serving a foundational training function. Therefore, early training should follow the cyclical training laws outlined in periodization theory, downplaying competitiveness and specificity while emphasizing enlightenment and foundational aspects. However, the ultimate goal of foundational training during childhood and adolescence is still to lay the groundwork for future specialized training. Thus, during the second stage of this period, special attention should be paid to a natural transition toward adult-level specialized training. Such a transition should occur naturally. Generally speaking, completing this transition requires the following three conditions:
(1) The foundational factors necessary for achieving excellent specialized performance have been initially established and are clearly evident;
(2) A certain level of specialized performance has already been demonstrated;
(3) The athlete has developed a certain level of interest and ambition toward the specialized sport they are engaging in. If the above conditions are not yet met, it is not advisable to rush into specialized training. Instead, the duration of this foundational training stage should be appropriately extended until these conditions are fulfilled. In cultivating children and adolescents’ interest and passion for specialized training, the process is generally divided into two steps: First, during childhood, cultivate their interest in participating in sports activities, then guide them toward early specialized systematic training. Second, after undergoing certain comprehensive and general training, during adolescence, attention should be given to guiding and nurturing their interest in the specialized sport suitable for them.
Training Characteristics of the Early Enlightenment Training Stage This stage of training is an enlightening one, characterized by distinct enlightenment and comprehensive training features. Its primary task is to cultivate children’s interest in sports, develop their overall physical fitness, improve their health, ensure normal growth and development, and identify promising talent. The main training characteristics of this stage are:
(1) Children at this stage have not yet chosen a specialty. Promising talent in sports is discovered through centralized training.
(2) This stage involves early comprehensive training, typically for general projects in grades 1–3 of elementary school, with certain “youth” projects possibly starting in the senior class of kindergarten.
(3) This stage is primarily conducted in the form of play and games, with diverse training methods.
(4) Training content mainly consists of basic activities such as track and field, gymnastics, ball sports, and games, providing comprehensive physical training. Later, preliminary training in certain sports may be introduced, not to enhance specialized abilities but to promote normal and comprehensive growth and development in children and to understand their directional tendencies in specific sports, laying the foundation for specialization.
(5) This stage generally does not involve formal competitions in any specific sport, hence there is no regulation of competitive states.
(6) The number of participants in this stage can be expanded, and it can be combined with extracurricular exercise. Under no circumstances should early entry into amateur sports schools for specialized training occur.
(7) At this stage, most athletic qualities have not yet entered sensitive development periods. Particular attention should be paid to avoiding early training in maximal strength, strength endurance, and speed endurance. However, training in coordination, speed, and flexibility can be conducted.
(8) Due to children’s lower load-bearing capacity, the loads at this stage should primarily consist of medium and low-level instructional and fitness loads.
Training Characteristics of the Early Foundational Training Stage This stage is divided into a general foundational training phase and a specialized foundational training phase. The former primarily aims to establish a comprehensive and general physical foundation for specialized training, while the latter focuses on laying the groundwork for specialized physical training and specialized technical and tactical training. The overall goal of the foundational training stage is to further improve children’s health, promote normal physical growth and development, comprehensively enhance the foundational athletic abilities of child and adolescent athletes—especially coordination and basic skills—and preliminarily determine the direction of specialization, laying the foundation for the specialized training stage. As shown in Table 7, the total training duration for this stage is generally 6–8 years for males and 4–6 years for females across most sports. Both the general foundational training phase and the specialized foundational training phase last approximately 3–4 years for males and 2–3 years for females, with the specialized foundational phase sometimes slightly longer. If training begins early (before 7–8 years old), the duration of this stage is longer (6–8 years); conversely, if training starts later (after 10–12 years old), the duration is shorter (3–6 years). Training durations vary by sport, and the time needed to advance through each level of performance improvement also differs. The higher the training level, the relatively longer the time required for further improvement. The starting age for this stage is 8–11 years old for both genders, with age spans of 8–17 years for males and 8–16 years for females across various sports. The general foundational training starts at 8–11 years old for both genders, with age spans of 8–13 years. The specialized foundational phase sees a wider age range for males (11–14 years) and females (10–14 years), with age spans of 11–17 years for males and 10–16 years for females. This stage’s training primarily focuses on teaching the basic techniques of various sports and specialized basic techniques, along with various auxiliary and specialized training content and methods. Children and adolescents are in a sensitive development period for coordination qualities, so training content should prioritize coordination ability. The arrangement of quality training content should follow the sequence of sensitivity development periods: flexibility → aerobic capacity and reaction speed → maximal speed and speed strength → maximal strength, anaerobic endurance, and strength endurance. In technical training, do not overly pursue complete, high-difficulty, or high-intensity techniques. Focus should be on mastering the basic principles of various sports techniques. During the specialized foundational training phase, attention should be given to establishing a foundation in specialized basic techniques and tactics, gradually forming one’s own specialized technical characteristics in the later stages. Training content should be relatively concentrated. For technically complex sports, focus on basic techniques; for simpler ones, shift focus to key physical qualities and those in sensitive development periods, cautiously developing maximal strength, anaerobic endurance, speed endurance, and specialized endurance. Training content is not started all at once but is arranged in a certain sequence with overlaps. Training methods and means should be diverse, utilizing exercises from various sports and activity-based games. Particularly in the general foundational training stage, avoid scheduling too many sessions with single-content, high physical and psychological loads, or excessive use of equipment. In the later stages of this phase, young athletes should have a solid and proficient command of dozens of specialized training exercises, ultimately developing the ability to quickly master specialized techniques. Training loads at this stage should not be excessive. Initially, under the premise of synchronous increases in volume and intensity, prioritize increasing volume, reaching 60%–70% by the later stages of this phase. During the specialized foundational training phase, the focus shifts to increasing intensity while slowing the rise in volume. Load progression should adopt a gradual, step-by-step approach, with increments not being too drastic. Excessive loads at this stage can ruin an athlete’s future. The main indicators for training loads at this stage are outlined in Table 8. The number of competitions during the foundational training stage varies significantly by sport, but a common principle is that competition frequency should not be excessive, intensity should not be too high, and competitions should primarily focus on foundational abilities. As training levels improve, the proportion of specialized training in competitions should gradually increase.
The general basic training phase typically begins between ages 8 and 11 for both boys and girls, with the age range spanning from 8 to 13 for both genders. In the specialized basic stage, the age range begins to differ, with boys starting specialized basic training between ages 11 and 14, and girls between 10 and 14. The overall age range extends from 11 to 17 for boys and 10 to 16 for girls. This stage of training primarily focuses on teaching the fundamental techniques of various sports and the basic techniques specific to the sport, as well as incorporating a variety of auxiliary and specialized training content and methods. Children and adolescents are in a sensitive period for the development of coordination abilities, so the training content should emphasize coordination skills. When arranging physical quality training, it should follow the sequence of the sensitive development periods of these qualities: flexibility → aerobic capacity and reaction speed → maximum speed and speed strength → maximum strength, anaerobic endurance, and strength endurance. In technical training, avoid placing excessive emphasis on complete, high-difficulty, or high-intensity techniques. The focus should be on mastering the basic principles of various sports techniques. During the specialized basic training phase, attention should be paid to laying a solid foundation in specialized basic techniques and tactics, gradually developing individual technical characteristics in the later stages. Training content should be relatively concentrated; for technically complex sports, the emphasis should be on mastering basic techniques, while for technically simpler sports, the focus should shift to developing the key physical attributes of that sport during its sensitive growth period. It is also acceptable to cautiously begin developing competitive abilities such as maximum strength, anaerobic endurance, speed endurance, and sport-specific endurance. Training content should not all start simultaneously but should be arranged in a certain sequence with some overlap. Training methods and means should be diverse, making extensive use of exercises from various sports and active games. Especially during the general basic training phase, avoid scheduling too many training sessions that involve monotonous content, high physical and psychological loads, or the use of large amounts of equipment. In the later stages of this phase, young athletes should have a thorough and solid command of dozens of specialized training exercises, ultimately developing the ability to quickly master specialized techniques. The training load during this phase should not be excessive. At the beginning, under the premise of simultaneous increases in volume and intensity, priority should be given to increasing volume, reaching 60%–70% by the later stages of this phase. When entering the specialized basic training phase, the focus should shift from increasing volume to primarily improving intensity, while the rate of increase in load should be gradual and not too pronounced. Applying excessive loads to children and adolescents at this stage can jeopardize their athletic futures. The main indicators for training loads during this phase are arranged as shown in Table 8. The number of competitions during the basic training phase varies significantly by sport, but a common principle is that the number of competitions should not be excessive, the intensity should not be too high, and competitions should primarily focus on assessing foundational abilities. As training levels improve, the proportion of specialized training should gradually increase.
Theory of Competitive States
Competitive State and Its Formation and Development Laws The goal of any training process is to enable athletes to reach their optimal competitive state during major competitions. The formulation of training plans largely revolves around the formation, development, and scientific regulation of the optimal competitive state. A competitive state refers to a specially prepared athletic condition for competition. The athletic condition exhibited during normal training is referred to as the general athletic state, while the condition shown before and during competitions is called the competitive athletic state (or simply competitive state). The expression of competitive states varies in degree and is categorized into four types: “optimal competitive state,” “general competitive state,” “poor competitive state,” and “very poor competitive state.” The standards for competitive states in various pre-competition phases are: achieving over 98% of the previous year’s highest performance, 96.5%–98%, 95%–96.5%, and below 95%, respectively. This indicates that the optimal competitive state refers to the first-tier competitive state required to achieve the best possible performance in competitions, which can generally be maintained for 1.5–2.5 months. Attaining the highest level within the first tier is the ultimate goal athletes strive for in major competitions. Elite athletes can maintain this state for 7–10 days, but child and adolescent athletes typically maintain it for only 3–5 days and 5–7 days, respectively. Therefore, competitions must occur precisely within this time frame for athletes to achieve their best results. The formation and development of competitive states mainly include the following stages: The first stage is the “initial formation of competitive state stage.” The primary task of this stage is to preliminarily form a competitive state through training the foundational athletic abilities that determine competitive states. This stage is further divided into two substages: the first substage is the “prerequisite formation stage for competitive states,” belonging to the general training foundation stage, focusing on establishing the foundations of athletic abilities such as physical fitness, skills, qualities, psychology, and mentality. The second substage is the “initial formation of competitive state stage.” In multi-year training, this stage falls within the foundational training phase. In the later part of this stage, some favorable competitive states and performance results may emerge, but the optimal competitive state and peak performance must never occur. The second stage is the “further improvement and maintenance of competitive state stage.” This stage is also divided into two substages. The first substage is the “further improvement stage...” (truncated in source). The third stage is the “temporary disappearance of competitive state stage.” During this stage, the competitive state temporarily fades, and athletes enter a phase of adjustment and rest, preparing for the next cycle of competitive states. In multi-year training, the early foundational training stage is the “preparatory training cycle” within the larger multi-year training cycle, primarily responsible for regulating the two early training stages of “forming the prerequisites for competitive states” and “initially forming competitive states.” Strictly speaking, the prerequisite for the specialized improvement stage belongs to the early training stage, while its latter part should be the specialized training stage. Therefore, more precisely, this stage is a transitional phase from the early foundational training stage to the specialized training stage, also referred to as the “specialized transition training stage.” The formation and development of competitive states within annual training correspond precisely to the preparation period, competition period, and recovery period of the annual training cycle, as well as the respective specific training stages within them.
The Constituent Factors of Competitive State and Their Manifestations in Early Training The constituent factors of competitive state mainly include two categories. One is "stable factors," primarily referring to the athlete's physiological, biochemical, and psychological potential in terms of morphology, physiology, biochemistry, and mental capacity. Since these competitive abilities are developed over a relatively long period, they are relatively stable and not easily lost. Even if training is skipped for several days or even weeks, there will not be any significant or substantial decline. The other category is "unstable factors," mainly referring to the working capacity of the central nervous system, including the athlete's psychological, mental, and emotional states. This capacity is highly susceptible to external influences and can change rapidly, greatly affecting the formation and regulation of competitive state just before competitions, as well as in the short term and momentary states. Although these two types of factors differ, they are closely related. Only when both types of factors are at a high level can an athlete potentially achieve a good competitive state. The critical period for the development of the competitive abilities involved in these two types of factors is precisely during the early training phase. If the necessary training time is not ensured during the early training stage, then by the time an athlete reaches the elite level, there will be no solid foundation for the formation and improvement of competitive state. In this sense, the level of competitive state and its stability largely depend on whether the foundational work during the early training phase is solid and whether a consolidated dynamic stereotype has been achieved.
The Temporal Laws and Regulation Models of Competitive State Control in Pre-Competition Training Competition schedules are fixed, but an athlete's competitive state is dynamic and variable. If regulated well, it will peak right at the time of competition; if not, it may emerge too early during warm-up matches before the main event or after the competition. Athletic performance depends on both the athlete’s potential and the improvement of training levels, as well as the ability to bring out the best competitive state at the right time during major competitions. There are two types of factors that influence the timing of pre-competition training arrangements: individual factors, which include the time required for an athlete to reach their optimal competitive state, the status of various competitive abilities before the competition, the ability to handle heavy loads and recover, training level and experience, personality and psychological characteristics, biological rhythm cycles, gender, etc. The other type is training-related factors, which include the characteristics of training load arrangements, the content, methods, and means of pre-competition training, competition patterns, levels, and intensity of competition, the interval since the last major competition, and the location of the competition. In the initial stages of early training, competitions are not the main focus. However, during the early specialized training phase, especially the specialized improvement phase, young athletes begin to participate in competitions of varying levels, making the regulation of pre-competitive state an important and unavoidable training task at this stage. Athletes gradually learn to scientifically regulate their competitive state during pre-competition training and actual competitions by appropriately participating in some matches and engaging in targeted pre-competition training. While the basic principles of competitive state regulation are consistent across athletes of different training levels, specific arrangements may vary.
The General Model of Competitive State Regulation in Pre-Competition Training (According to Xu Benli, 1994) This is the general model of pre-competitive state regulation established by the author through years of research. The model consists of the following basic components:
(1) High-Load Stress Intensification Training At the beginning of the pre-competition training phase, athletes should first be given a high-load intensification stimulus.
(2) Load Reduction Training Immediately after the high-load stress training, small to medium-load load reduction training should be arranged to adjust the fatigue caused by the high-load training.
(3) Scientific Regulation of Other Factors (such as nutrition, training content, etc.) From this, it can be seen that pre-competition training should include at least two major phases: "intensification training" and "recovery-induction training," and not just the recovery and induction phase right before the competition. On this basis, the athlete’s body can achieve the highest level of supercompensation, thereby forming the optimal competitive state before the competition and delivering the best possible athletic performance. The load regulation principle of this regulation model is: the high-load stress intensification training phase should consist of a volume intensification phase and an intensity intensification phase, in that order—first intensifying the volume, then the intensity. The level of intensification should start low and then increase. The load reduction training phase should involve small volumes and small to medium intensities, in the order of first reducing the volume, then the intensity. The high-load stress intensification training phase accounts for more than half of the total pre-competition training time (about two-thirds), while the load reduction training accounts for about one-third (approximately one-third), following the principle of "more than half for intensification, less than half for regulation." This structural model, in medium- to short-term pre-competition training, is actually a "pre-competition mesocycle" composed of different training microcycles, including five basic microcycles: preparation-adaptation-recovery, volume increase, intensity, induction, and competition, along with interspersed "load reduction-recovery microcycles" at various stages.
Regulation of Optimal Competitive State Throughout Long-Term Training – Establishment of the "Inverse Spoon-Shaped" Dynamic Model of Multi-Year Competitive States Changes in competitive states over the course of long-term training also occur in three ways: gradual, gradual-mutational, and jump-type. From the perspective of modern training trends, the training of adult elite athletes should primarily follow the gradual-mutational and jump-type models, while the early stages of early training should be dominated by the gradual model, with the gradual-mutational and jump-type models gradually adopted in later stages. Normal competitive state regulation should begin with rapid growth, followed by smaller increments of gradual improvement. During the specialized improvement phase, performance improvement accelerates, and for the first time, high-level athletic performance at the master level is achieved, resulting in a mutational rise in performance. By the time the athlete reaches the highest specialized competitive phase, the competitive state reaches its peak. An athlete’s total training duration typically spans 13 to 20 years or more, and if including the introductory training phase, it extends to 15 to 25 years or more. Based on the above patterns, after years of research, our editor has established a "inverse spoon-shaped" dynamic regulation model of multi-year competitive states throughout the entire training process, consisting of six phases: no specialized performance, rapid improvement of specialized competitive state, steady improvement, rapid mutational improvement, steady improvement, and maintenance or gradual decline. The long-term trend of competitive state (athletic performance) changes among Olympic athletes, regardless of the sport, shows that compared to average athletes, Olympic participants generally begin their specialized training much later, with the majority starting after the age of 10. However, most athletes in China currently begin early training between the ages of 6 and 8, or even earlier, resulting in generally lower success rates. This contrasts with the pattern observed among Olympic athletes. This abnormal phenomenon is caused by the prevalent issue of "excessively early specialized training" in China’s early training practices.
Comparative Analysis of the Development Patterns of Successful and Average Olympic Athletes Athletes’ athletic careers vary significantly by sport. Chen Bing and Tian Maijiu (1992) studied the age characteristics of various milestones throughout the multi-year training processes of 521 Chinese athletes who participated in the 23rd and 24th Olympic Games. The results showed that the earlier an athlete begins training, the earlier they enter local team professional training, national team training, and become Olympic athletes. However, the Olympic success period is shorter, and retirement age is also earlier. Compared to male athletes, female athletes tend to mature earlier, generally starting early training 1–2 years earlier than males, and this trend is more pronounced among female athletes. Regardless of the sport, the long-term pattern of competitive state (athletic performance) changes among Olympic athletes shows that those who compete in the Olympics generally begin their early training much later than average athletes, with the vast majority starting after the age of 10. In contrast, most athletes in China currently begin early training between the ages of 6 and 8, or even earlier, leading to generally lower success rates. This is the opposite of the pattern observed among Olympic athletes. This is an abnormal phenomenon caused by the prevalent issue of "excessively early specialized training" in China’s early training practices.
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