The Qin and Han Great Wall

The Qin and Han Great Wall

The Qin and Han Great Wall is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The Qin and Han Great Wall

After crossing the Kubuqi Desert, we crossed the Yellow River northward to reach Wulate Qianqi at the southern foot of the Yin Mountains. In the Hetao region of Inner Mongolia, Wulate is known for its vast grasslands, numerous wetlands along the Yellow River, and the stunningly scenic Lake Wuliangsuhai where water meets the sky.

Unfortunately, because current maps in China only mark the Great Wall built during the Ming Dynasty, a well-preserved section of hundreds of miles of the Qin and Han Great Wall located in the Yin Mountains between Guyang and Wulate Qianqi remains largely unknown and unrecognized by the world. Determined to uncover this hidden gem, I decided to venture into the depths of the Yin Mountains with my assistant.

Heading northeast from Wulate Qianqi, the bluish-green silhouette of the Yin Mountains came into view from afar. This area is part of an agricultural-pastoral transitional zone, featuring not only expansive grasslands but also large tracts of farmland. Like almost all land north of the Yellow River, once grasslands are converted to farmland, they face the risk of desertification. As a result, in the farming areas along the way, one can see sand belts several kilometers wide and tens of kilometers long. Based on the shape and direction of these sand belts, the sand originates from the nearby shores of Lake Wuliangsuhai. “Mountains look close but are hard to reach”—we drove at full speed, crossing the agricultural-pastoral transitional zone of Wulate and arriving at Dase Tai Town at the foot of the Yin Mountains in less than two hours.

Over the past century, numerous Chinese and foreign scholars have conducted research on the Qin and Han Great Wall and the fortifications and beacon towers along its route. Major expeditions include: from 1900 to 1916, British archaeologist A. Stein entered the Gansu-Xinjiang region three times to study and excavate Han and Jin Dynasty beacon tower ruins in Loulan and Dunhuang. In 1930, the Sino-Swedish Northwest Scientific Expedition surveyed the Juyan Han Dynasty beacon tower ruins. In 1942, the Northwest Historical and Geographic Survey Team of the Academia Sinica investigated the Han Dynasty Yumen Pass, Yang Pass, and the adjacent sections of the Great Wall, fortifications, and beacon towers to the east. After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, archaeologists from Gansu, Ningxia, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Inner Mongolia, Hebei, and Liaoning provinces and regions along the Qin and Han Great Wall conducted multiple surveys and excavations. Research confirmed that the Qin and Han Great Wall was developed on the foundations of the pre-existing walls of the Warring States-period states of Qin, Zhao, and Yan. It stretches from Yumen Pass in the west to Liaodong in the east, covering a straight-line distance of over 6,000 kilometers. The entire wall can be roughly divided into eastern, central, and western sections.

The eastern section of the Qin and Han Great Wall almost entirely follows the Yan Dynasty Great Wall. Starting roughly between Huade County and Shangdu County in Inner Mongolia, it runs eastward along the 42nd parallel north, passing south of Kangbao County in Hebei Province, south of Taibus Banner and Duolun County in Inner Mongolia, north of Fengning County in Hebei Province, north of Weichang County, then eastward along the northern bank of the Jin Ying River through Chifeng City, reaching Tuchengzi in Naiman Banner. From there, it continues for about 10 kilometers before... (text truncated). According to the "Biographies of Joseon" in the Records of the Grand Historian, “After Qin conquered Yan, Liaodong became an external frontier,” suggesting that from Fuxin eastward, the Qin did not make use of the Yan Dynasty Great Wall in Liaodong. In recent years, relics discovered in Fuxin, Faku, Kuandian, and other areas, as well as the cultural elements observed in nearby excavated sites, show both northern nomadic and Central Plains cultural characteristics. If these findings are taken into account, the starting point of this section should align with the “Records of the Grand Historian,” which states: “After Qin conquered Yan, it annexed the external frontiers of Liaodong.”

The middle section of the Qin and Han Great Wall extends approximately from 114° east longitude westward to 102°. This segment is complex, built and expanded across different time periods, and can generally be divided into southern, central, and northern routes. The southern route follows the Qin Dynasty Great Wall, starting from Min County in Gansu, running northeast through Lintao and Weiyuan, Guyuan in Ningxia, Huan County in Gansu, Wuqi and Jingbian in Shaanxi, and Yulin. It then follows the eastern edge of the Mu Us Desert, crosses the Kuye River, and heads north into Jungar Banner in Inner Mongolia, reaching Shierliancheng on the southern bank of the Yellow River. After Qin unified the six states, Meng Tian built the Great Wall using this as its western section, which continued to be used in the early Han Dynasty. During Emperor Wu of Han’s reign, the western defensive line shifted northward to the Hexi Corridor, rendering this section of the Great Wall obsolete.

The central route of the middle section of the Qin and Han Great Wall roughly traverses the territory of the ancient Jiuyuan and Yunzhong commanderies during the Qin Dynasty. Research shows that the remnants start from Ningxia and head north, passing through the Jilu Sai fortress north of the Ulan Buh Desert into Inner Mongolia. They then meander along the ridges north of Langshan Mountain, reaching the Shilanji Pass, continuing east through the northern part of Guyang County, then through the southern part of Wuchuan County, following the northern side of the Daqing Mountain, passing through Jining City, and finally entering the territory of Weichang County in Hebei Province from the northern part of Xinghe County, connecting with the original Yan Dynasty Great Wall of the eastern section. In addition to utilizing parts of the Warring States-period Zhao Dynasty Great Wall, some segments of this section were likely expanded by Qin general Meng Tian.

The northern route of the middle section, known as the so-called “Outer Wall” built during Emperor Wu of Han’s reign, is first mentioned in the “Biographies of the Xiongnu” in Records of the Grand Historian: in the third year of the Taichu era (102 BCE), “The Han sent Palace Attendant Xu Ziwu from the Wuyuan Pass several hundred li, even more than a thousand li, to build fortifications, beacon towers, and stations as far as Lüxiong.” It is commonly referred to as the “Guanglu Sai” or “Guanglu City,” or simply the “Emperor Wu Outer Wall.” Was this a parallel line of the Great Wall or a series of disconnected fortifications and beacon towers outside the main wall? Historians have long debated this. In recent years, many archaeologists have conducted field investigations and unanimously agree that it is indeed a parallel line of the Great Wall, consisting of two separate lines, though there are slight disagreements on the exact path of certain segments. One view holds that the Emperor Wu Outer Wall lies north of the Yin Mountains, divided into northern and southern lines, both extending northwest with roughly parallel trajectories spaced about 5–50 kilometers apart. The southern line starts within Wuchuan County, crosses westward through Wulate Zhonghou Joint Banner and Chage Banner, extends northwest into Mongolia, while the northern line starts east of Damiao Joint Banner, runs west through Wulate Zhonghou Banner and Chage Banner, enters Mongolia, then turns south to connect with the Great Wall in Ejin Banner. Another view suggests that both outer walls start west of Halahuo in the central section of the Wuchuan County wall, winding northwest through Damiao Joint Banner, Wulate Zhonghou Joint Banner, and Chage Banner into the Mongolian Plateau. The northern line extends all the way to the Altai Mountains, while the southern line turns southwest to connect with the beacon towers and fortifications outside the Juyan Sai. We believe that in such a vast survey area, minor discrepancies in the direction of certain segments are inevitable. A unified organization, comprehensive reassessment, supplemented by modern scientific mapping and documentation, will be essential to reach a definitive conclusion.

The western section of the Great Wall was constructed during Emperor Wu of Han’s efforts to develop the Hexi Corridor. It starts roughly from the shores of Sugan Nur Lake in Ejin Banner, follows the eastern bank of the Ejin River to the Beida River in Jinta County, Gansu, then traces the southern foothills of the North Mountains, passing by the Shule River in Dunhuang, and ends at Yumen Pass. West of Yumen Pass, as far as the ancient Loulan (Shanshan) near Lop Nur in Xinjiang, there are still many Han Dynasty beacon tower ruins, but no continuous wall structures remain. Therefore, Yumen Pass is generally considered the western terminus of the Han Great Wall.

The Qin and Han Great Wall served as a military defensive structure. The natural environments it traversed varied greatly, and construction methods were adapted accordingly, using local materials. On flat land, walls were built with rammed earth; in mountainous areas, stones were used; along steep cliffs, the cliffs themselves were often used as walls with minimal modifications; and in mountain passes, a combination of earth and stone was employed. Generally speaking, the rammed-earth sections of the wall have largely deteriorated, leaving only the foundation traces, which are typically 4–6 meters wide. The “Emperor Wu Outer Wall” has suffered especially severe erosion, with only intermittent, gently undulating earthen ridges remaining. Stone-built sections vary in structure—some with wider bases tapering upward, others with vertical walls—typically 4–5 meters in both height and width, and are relatively well preserved. Whether rammed earth or stone, many sections show signs of repeated repairs over time.