Alpine Style Mountaineering:
A form of mountaineering that relies entirely or primarily on the climber’s own strength without depending on others, used to climb various peaks. It is named after its early form in the Alps mountain region. After the 1920s, it was gradually replaced by the pyramid-shaped military-style approach. Since the 1970s, it has seen a gradual revival and development. In May 1978, Italian mountaineers Reinhold Messner and Peter Habeler reached the summit of Mount Everest without supplemental oxygen for the first time. In August 1980, Reinhold Messner solo-climbed from a 6,400-meter camp to the summit again without oxygen, opening new paths for this style of mountaineering.
Pyramid-Shaped Military-Style Mountaineering:
A type of high-altitude mountaineering that relies heavily on hired personnel. Since the 1920s, international mountaineering has been developing rapidly, with climbing altitudes continually increasing and the weight and transportation demands of equipment and food growing rapidly. Climbers’ own strength could no longer manage the transport of all necessary supplies throughout the climb, so a large number of local mountain residents were hired to assist the expedition teams. The typical ratio between climbers and hired personnel is one to three — one climber supported by three assistants — forming a pyramid-like layered station system where each station retains personnel, known as the “military-style” supply and support line. This form of mountaineering has gradually lost its original sporting significance. Since the mid-1970s, international mountaineering organizations have strongly promoted *Alpine Style mountaineering to restore its sporting essence and purpose.
Technical Mountaineering:
A form of mountaineering that relies on skilled climbing techniques and various technical equipment to specifically scale cliffs and steep rock faces. It began in the late 19th century and by the early 1970s, climbers worldwide had conquered the three most challenging north faces in the Alps (the Eiger Nordwand, the Matterhorn Nordwand, and the Grandes Jorasses Nordwand). Starting in the 1980s, with continuous improvements in equipment for scaling steep cliffs, this activity expanded from low mountain regions in Europe to high-altitude areas in Asia.
Protection:
A mountaineering term. It is one of the safety measures and an important component of mountaineering techniques. Protection mainly includes self-protection and mutual protection. The former refers to using one's own protective measures to ensure personal safety, such as securing a rope to a reliable anchor point behind (like a protruding rock or fixed rock piton). The latter refers to the various protective actions taken among team members when climbing dangerous areas such as steep cliffs or icy crevasses. The most basic methods are "standing" and "seated" protection techniques.
Summit Push:
A mountaineering term. It refers to the final push to the summit after completing a series of preparatory tasks such as acclimatization training, transport, and camp setup. Success largely depends on two factors: the physical and mental condition of the climber, and weather conditions. Statistics since the 1950s show that among Himalayan expeditions, 68% of summit failures were due to bad weather.
Single Push:
An ascent where the goal is to reach the summit of a single mountain and then descend the same route.
Mountaineering Tourism:
A travel activity that involves exploring mountainous areas without reaching the summit. Enthusiasts carry essential mountaineering food and gear, traveling in groups to admire rugged peaks, take photographs, and collect specimens. It emerged in the early 1970s alongside the development of mountaineering.
Mountaineering Camp:
Camps set up to meet the needs of mountaineers for acclimatization, rest, and equipment transport. When climbing peaks above 5,500 meters, “base camp” and “intermediate camps” are generally established. The base camp serves as the command center and logistics hub for the expedition, as well as the main resting area before the final summit push following acclimatization climbs. Location requirements include: safety (free from floods, falling rocks, or avalanches), good visibility of the climbing route, access to water, wind protection, long sunlight hours, flat terrain, and vehicle accessibility to nearby towns. Intermediate camps are primarily for helping climbers adapt to the high-altitude environment (such as thin air). During the ascent, they allow gradual acclimatization and meet supply transport needs. Camps are spaced at moderate distances. Some national expeditions climbing Mount Everest establish around six camps, typically located at approximately 5,300 meters (base camp), 6,100 meters (Camp 1), 6,400 meters (Camp 2), 6,900 meters (Camp 3), 7,400 meters (Camp 4), 7,900 meters (Camp 5), and 8,500 meters (Camp 6).
Low-Pressure Chamber:
A device used to test and train mountaineers’ tolerance to hypoxia. It is a not fully sealed chamber where air is pumped out to create low-pressure, oxygen-deficient conditions, which can be adjusted to simulate altitudes of several thousand or even tens of thousands of meters. By spending time in the chamber, mountaineers can assess their hypoxia tolerance and thus evaluate their high-altitude performance. Under normal circumstances, it can also be used as a training tool for hypoxia endurance.
Altitude Sickness:
Also known as “Acute Mountain Sickness.” A general term for various clinical symptoms caused by the body’s insufficient adaptation to the high-altitude, oxygen-deficient environment. Main symptoms include dizziness, headache, tinnitus, nausea, vomiting, accelerated pulse and breathing, limb numbness, and in severe cases, unconsciousness. Symptoms may ease with oxygen inhalation. It can be classified into seven types: acute mountain sickness, high-altitude pulmonary edema, high-altitude coma, high-altitude hypertension, high-altitude polycythemia, high-altitude heart disease, and chronic mixed altitude adaptation insufficiency.
Acute Mountain Sickness:
A mountaineering term. A collective term for symptoms such as headache, palpitation, and shortness of breath occurring either upon rapid ascent to high-altitude regions or during prolonged residence at high elevations due to incomplete acclimatization to the lack of oxygen. There is no organic damage involved, and symptoms usually subside within about a week, although some cases may persist for longer. Cases lasting more than three months are referred to as “chronic mountain sickness.”
Mountaineering Equipment:
A general term for tools, instruments, clothing, and other gear used in mountaineering. It is divided into three main categories: (1) Camping equipment, including tents, cookware, bedding, and various fuels. (2) Technical equipment, including climbing ropes, oxygen gear, measuring instruments, altimeters, hygrometers, pitons, carabiners, ascenders, ladders, pulleys, snow shovels, etc. (3) Personal equipment, including mountaineering clothing, climbing shoes, mountaineering boots, helmets, flashlights, gloves, protective eyewear, etc. Its characteristics include being lightweight, portable, durable, easy to assemble/disassemble, and multi-functional.
Climbing Rope:
Mountaineering equipment. Comes in two types: main rope and auxiliary rope. The main rope is 60–100 meters long, with a diameter of about 10 mm and a weight of around 0.08 kg per meter. Its minimum tensile strength must be no less than 1,800 kg. Originally often made of hemp, it has since been largely replaced by nylon fiber. Another type of main rope has a diameter of 8–9 mm, weighs 0.06 kg per meter, and has a tensile strength of no less than 1,600 kg, used for climbing steep rock faces. The length of the auxiliary rope varies according to regional activity needs, with no uniform specification. Its diameter is 6–7 mm, weighs no more than 0.04 kg per meter, and has a tensile strength of no less than 1,200 kg. It shares the same material as the main rope and is used for self-protection, setting various auxiliary knots for protection on the main rope, building rope bridges for river crossings, and transporting supplies via traction rope bridges.
Carabiner:
Mountaineering equipment. Available in over ten models. Common types include D-shaped, HMS (Alpine), oval, and hybrid. There are also safety ring carabiners and descender-specific carabiners. They are widely used for tasks such as group travel, protection, river crossings, climbing, rescue, and casualty evacuation. Mostly made of steel or aluminum alloy, their tensile strength must reach at least 1,800 kg.
Hanging ladder:
Mountaineering equipment. Used for climbing steep rock faces or ice walls that lack natural handholds. There are three types: long ladders, short ladders, and small hanging ladders. A long ladder is generally 5 meters in length, with edges made of stranded fine steel wire (tensile strength requirement of about 2,000 kg), and rungs (i.e., crossbars) made of hollow aluminum tubes (tensile strength requirement of about 300 kg). The distance between two rungs is 30–50 cm. Two long ladders can be connected at either end to help cross steep ice walls, snow slopes, and crevasse areas when climbing peaks over 7,000 or 8,000 meters. A short ladder is typically 1–1.50 meters long, with edges made of auxiliary rope, rungs 12 cm long, 3 cm wide, and 3–5 mm thick, made of aluminum sheet, spaced 50 cm apart. A small hanging ladder usually has only two rungs, though some are specially made with three, similar to short ladders. Recently, soft small hanging ladders made of nylon straps have been developed, offering greater portability.
Ascender:
Mountaineering equipment. Used for climbing steep rock faces. It comes in two types: ascenders and descenders. The ascender was originally a tool used by the German Army Mountain Division for scaling rock and ice walls, known as JUMAR, hence also called the "Jumar-style ascender." Only one person needs to first climb the rock face, after which others can use it to ascend. After World War II, as mountaineering standards improved, it gradually became an important self-protection tool for climbers navigating hazardous areas. Types include hook-style and plate-style, among others. Descenders are lightweight equipment used for descending vertical steep walls (rock, stone, or ice). Types include figure-eight and double-ring styles, among others.
Oxygen equipment:
Mountaineering gear. Used for climbing peaks above 8,000 meters or for rescuing altitude sickness caused by oxygen deficiency during climbing. It consists of a steel cylinder, mask, air hose, flow regulator, pressure gauge, and backpack frame.
Knots:
One of the methods of utilizing ropes in mountaineering. There are over thirty types, but the six most commonly used are: (1) Bowline. Known internationally as the "Buntline Hitch," used for protection and self-protection. (2) Pass-through knot. Used for protection, self-protection, or securing ropes. (3) Prusik knot. Used for protection during ascent and descent, as well as tightening ropes stretched across supports when building a rope bridge to cross rivers. (4) Stirrup knot. Also called the "double loop knot." Used in conjunction with the prusik knot when climbing steep rock faces, aiding in foot ascent. (5) Square knot. Used to join two ropes. (6) Sheet bend. Same usage as the square knot.
Roped team:
One of the important safety measures in mountaineering and mountaineering tourism. Team members are grouped based on gender, age, physical strength, fitness, mountaineering experience, technical skill, and ability to handle emergencies, forming small units that allow stronger members to assist weaker ones for safer climbing. Team leaders with organizational skills and mountaineering experience are assigned. When traversing complex or dangerous terrain, ropes or other protective measures must be used to ensure safe passage.
Rock climbing competition:
A competitive event in mountaineering. Divided into four categories: individual speed climbing, pair roped team climbing, group climbing, and route choice climbing. Initiated in the 1950s and gradually developed from the 1960s. Officially recognized as an international competitive sport in 1974, with the first International Climbing Championship held that year, and subsequently every two years.
Slope difficulty grade:
Classification of climbing difficulty in mountaineering. Divided into three levels: (1) Easy. Slopes that can be climbed using only the feet. (2) Slightly difficult. Slopes that require the use of both feet and hands. (3) Difficult. Slopes that require the use of all four limbs plus various ropes and climbing equipment. From the second level onward, climbers must have basic mountain knowledge and fundamental climbing techniques, such as the three-point method, zigzag climbing, and techniques for special terrains.
Towing river crossing method:
A technical term in mountaineering. One of the basic techniques. Mainly used for rivers with fast currents, deep water, rocky riverbeds, low water temperatures, and not very wide spans. First, a towing rope is tied to a tree on one side of the river. A person wades or takes a detour upstream to secure the other end of the rope to a lower tree trunk or the ground on the opposite bank. Subsequent individuals then use a pulley or carabiner to slide across the river along the towing rope.
The Three North Faces:
The north face climbing routes of three challenging peaks in the Alps. They are: (1) Matterhorn (elevation 4,478 m). Located in the Alps on the border between Italy and Switzerland, the north face has a vertical height of 1,100 m, ranging from 3,400–4,478 m in elevation, with an average slope of 55–60 degrees, interspersed with snow and ice slopes. (2) Grandes Jorasses (elevation 4,208 m). The north face has a vertical height of 1,200 m, ranging from 3,000–4,200 m in elevation, with an average slope of 70–80 degrees. (3) Eiger (elevation 3,970 m). The north face has a vertical height of 1,800 m, ranging from 3,000–4,208 m in elevation, with an average slope of 70 degrees. These are internationally recognized as three extremely challenging and dangerous climbing routes.
Three-point fixation method:
A technical term in mountaineering. The most important and fundamental safe climbing method when ascending steep slopes in mountaineering. When climbing relatively steep rock faces, the hands and feet form four points of support for the body. Alternating the use of any three of these points keeps them temporarily fixed against the rock surface, while moving one hand or foot to continue ascending.
Three-step method:
A technical term in mountaineering. The basic method for climbing steep snow slopes. For example, when climbing harder slopes: (1) Hold the ice axe with both hands and grip its head on both sides, driving the pick into the snow on the slope. (2) Then forcefully kick the spike into the snow’s surface to create a support point. (3) Next, lift the other foot and break through another part of the snow’s surface to create another support point. Because this method creates equal-height, step-like footprints in three steps to gradually ascend, it is called the "three-step method."
Acclimatization march:
In mountaineering, refers to climbing activities aimed at improving adaptability. For climbing peaks above 6,000 m, due to the significant altitude difference, the human body cannot immediately adjust to the high-altitude, low-oxygen environment, making it difficult to reach the summit directly from base camp. Generally, a gradual, step-by-step acclimatization approach is adopted. For example, starting from a base camp at 4,000–5,000 m, several marches are made to reach altitudes of 6,000–7,000 m and achieve some level of adaptation before ascending further from base camp to above 8,000 m to adapt to the extremely high-altitude, low-oxygen environment.
Mountain hazards:
A mountaineering term. Refers to dangers encountered during climbing. Generally divided into two categories: natural hazards and man-made hazards. The former refers to various dangers posed by nature to climbers, such as falling rocks, avalanches, icefalls, crevasses, mountain torrents, sun exposure, strong winds, heavy snow, low temperatures, fog, and lightning. These hazards often cause injuries or fatalities. The latter mainly refers to situations where climbers, unfamiliar with natural changes in the mountains or lacking proper precautions, may fall into crevasses (or beneath cliff ice walls), or cases where human actions trigger avalanches or falling rocks, leading to serious accidents.
Avalanche:
The sudden collapse of a large amount of accumulated snow on a mountainside. Caused by the weight of the snow itself, strong winds, reduced friction between old and new snow layers, melting at the base of the snowpack, sudden temperature rises, and earthquakes or blizzards. Avalanches commonly occur on slopes between 25–40 degrees. Climbers entering avalanche zones and disrupting the snowpack’s balance can also trigger avalanches.
Snow blindness:
A type of altitude sickness. Damage to the eyes caused by the intense reflection of ultraviolet rays from snow surfaces. Initially, the eyes swell painfully, become sensitive to light, tear up, and vision becomes blurry. Prolonged exposure to UV rays may cause dark spots in the field of vision, severely impacting sight temporarily—hence the mistaken belief of "blindness." Mountaineers and workers in thin-air, snowy highlands are prone to this condition. Wearing protective eyewear that filters UV rays can help prevent it.
Snow Line:
The boundary line between the area that is perpetually covered with snow and the area where snow melts in summer. Its elevation generally varies according to the latitude of different regions. For example, the average elevation is around 2,500 meters in the Alps of Western Europe; in China's Tianshan Mountains, it averages 4,400 meters; and near Mount Everest on the Chinese side of the Himalayas, it stands at 5,600 meters.
Snow Cave:
A campsite artificially dug into a snow slope during mountaineering. It is usually constructed on steep slopes with strong winds, where setting up tents is impractical. It provides wind protection and is more comfortable and warmer than a tent.
Ridge Crossing:
A mountaineering route that involves crossing over the ridgeline or reaching summits near the ridgeline.
Traverse:
Zigzag Climbing Method:
A mountaineering technique term. It refers to a climbing method used on steep, dangerous grassy slopes, scree slopes, or icy slopes to reduce the difficulty and risk of slipping when climbing straight up. Because the route zigzags in a serpentine pattern resembling the Chinese character "zhi" (meaning "to go"), it is thus named.
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