Temple of Confucius

　　The Temple of Confucius (Main Temple) is located inside the southern gate of Qufu City, Shandong Province. It is the first temple dedicated to the worship of Confucius, initially built in 478 BC. Constructed on the site of Confucius’s former residence and designed to imperial standards, it is one of China’s three great ancient architectural complexes and holds an important place in the history of world architecture.

　　The Temple of Confucius (Northern Confucius Temple) is located at 116°58’30” east longitude and 35°36’42” north latitude. The Qufu Confucius Temple is the main temple dedicated to Confucius. It is said that the temple was first built in 478 BC, the year after Confucius’s death, when Duke Ai of Lu converted his former residence into a temple. Since then,...

　　...successive emperors continuously conferred honors upon Confucius and expanded the temple complex. By the Qing Dynasty, Emperor Yongzheng ordered a major renovation, expanding it to its present scale. The temple consists of nine courtyards arranged along a north-south central axis, divided into left, middle, and right sections. It stretches 630 meters in length and 140 meters in width, featuring over 460 halls, chambers, altars, and pavilions, 54 gates and archways, 13 “Imperial Stele Pavilions,” and more than 100 buildings with over 460 rooms, covering a vast area of approximately 95,000 square meters. Within the temple, the Hall of Sage’s Traces, the Thirteen Stele Pavilions, and the eastern and western corridors of the Dacheng Hall display a large number of stone tablets and carvings. In particular, the Han Dynasty steles preserved here are the most numerous in the country, and the dynastic stone inscriptions also include many rare treasures. The abundance of steles is second only to the Forest of Stone Steles in Xi’an, hence it is also known as China’s Second Stele Forest. The Temple of Confucius is the second-largest ancient architectural complex in China after the Forbidden City and one of China’s three great ancient architectural complexes, serving as a model of large-scale ancestral temple architecture in ancient China. The overall design of the Temple of Confucius is highly successful. The front features a Spirit Way lined with cypress trees on both sides, creating a solemn and respectful atmosphere that cultivates reverence among visitors. The main body of the temple is aligned along a central axis, with symmetrical left and right sections and a rigorous layout. The first three of the nine courtyards serve as introductory spaces, containing only smaller archways, with rows of pine and cypress trees planted throughout the courtyards, casting dense shade and creating an environment that clears the mind and purifies thoughts. Towering, ancient cypresses form a secluded pathway, evoking the long history of the Temple of Confucius while highlighting the profound depth of Confucian thought. The inscribed plaques on the towering archways lavish praise on Confucius’s achievements, leaving a strong impression and naturally inspiring admiration. The fourth courtyard features majestic architecture with yellow tiles, red walls, and green trees complementing each other—symbolizing both the breadth and depth of Confucius’s thought and his great accomplishments. The eastern and western corridors, which enshrine Confucian sages and worthies, stretch 166 meters each, symbolizing the enduring legacy of Confucian thought. The ancient architectural area of the Temple of Confucius covers approximately 16,000 square meters. Major structures include the Jin-Yuan stele pavilions, the Ming Dynasty Kuiwen Pavilion, the Apricot Altar, the De Mu Tian Di Archway, and the Dacheng Hall and Sleeping Hall rebuilt in the Qing Dynasty. The wooden construction techniques of the Golden Tablet Pavilion feature many Song Dynasty characteristics, with bracket sets demonstrating refined craftsmanship. The multi-tiered bracket arms decrease in size progressively, and the intercolumnar brackets, column-top brackets, and others are arranged in descending order. The roof brackets are similar to those used in the late Song Dynasty. The main hall adopts the post-and-lintel construction method commonly used during the golden age of the Song Dynasty. The bracket spacing varies flexibly from bay to bay, adjusted as needed—some bays have denser brackets, others sparser, and some even omit inner brackets altogether. This approach reflects the ingenious construction methods of ancient architecture. The temple preserves 1,044 stone tablets from the Han Dynasty onwards, including records of feudal emperors posthumously honoring, conferring titles upon, worshipping Confucius, and renovating the temple, as well as poetic inscriptions and writings left by emperors, generals, officials, and scholars who visited the temple. The inscriptions are in Chinese, Mongolian, 'Phags-pa script, and Manchu, with calligraphic styles including regular, cursive, clerical, and seal scripts. These steles are precious historical materials for studying the politics, economy, culture, and art of feudal society. Among them are over 20 Han Dynasty steles and inscriptions, making it the site with the largest collection of Han Dynasty stone carvings in China. The Yi Ying Stele, Li Qi Stele, Kong Zhou Stele, and Shi Chen Stele are representative works of Han clerical script, while the Zhang Menglong Stele and Jia Shijun Stele are models of Wei-style regular script. In addition, there are calligraphic works by Sun Xiangfan, Mi Fu, Dang Huaiying, Zhao Mengfu, Zhang Qiyian, Li Dongyang, Dong Qichang, and Weng Fanggang, as well as inscriptions by Yuan Haowen and Guo Zijing. The massive series of calligraphy rubbings, the Yuhonglou Calligraphy Collection by Kong Jilu consisting of 584 stone tablets, is also housed here. The stone carvings in the Temple of Confucius represent a treasure trove of ancient Chinese calligraphy art. Famous stone carving artworks in the Temple of Confucius include Han Dynasty relief stones, Ming and Qing Dynasty carved stone pillars, and Ming Dynasty carvings of the Sage’s Traces. There are over 90 Han relief stones with a wide range of themes, depicting not only scenes of social life but also historical stories and mythological legends. The carving techniques are diverse, including line engraving and relief carving. Line engraving includes sunken relief, raised relief, flat background, and line background; relief carving varies in depth, with smooth and rough surfaces. The styles range from refined and delicate to bold and unconstrained, with smooth lines and elegant forms. There are 74 carved stone pillars from the Ming and Qing Dynasties, including 56 with sunken relief and 18 with high relief. The sunken relief designs mostly feature small-scale motifs such as dragons, phoenixes, and peony flowers, created in the seventh year of the Yongzheng reign of the Qing Dynasty. The Chongsheng Shrine features carvings of peonies, pomegranates, and lotus flowers, with beautiful compositions dating back to the 17th year of the Hongzhi reign of the Ming Dynasty. The finest stone carvings are the high-relief dragon pillars—the ten pillars along the front eaves of the Dacheng Hall, each standing six meters tall, are the most imposing. The two dragon pillars in the Chongsheng Shrine feature vigorous dragon forms and lively cloud motifs, representing the highest level of craftsmanship. Additionally, the shallow relief carvings of cloud-dragon stone steps at the Shengshi Gate, Dacheng Gate, and Dacheng Hall also hold significant artistic value. The Sage’s Traces were created in the 20th year of the Wanli reign of the Ming Dynasty (1592) based on the Song and Jin wooden carvings of the Temple of Confucius, compiled and proofread by Mao Fengyi, a Confucian student from Qufu, painted by Yang Zhi of Yangzhou, and engraved by the stonemason Zhang Cao of Suzhou. The 120 illustrations vividly depict the life and deeds of Confucius and are among the earliest large-scale Chinese graphic novels, possessing high historical and artistic value. For over two thousand years, the Qufu Temple of Confucius has been destroyed and rebuilt repeatedly but has never been abandoned. Under national protection, it evolved from Confucius’s private residence into a massive architectural complex rivaling the scale of imperial palaces. Its longevity and rich documentation make it a unique example in the history of human architecture.

　　The construction methods are flexible, with the number and density of bracket sets varying from bay to bay as needed. The bracket arms are not uniform, and some inner bays even omit the central bracket arms altogether. The intercolumnar brackets vary in height, and some bays intentionally reduce the number of bracket arms to create a sense of openness. The bracket arms of adjacent bays differ in height, reflecting the ingenious construction techniques of ancient architecture. The use of post-and-lintel construction methods is flexible, adjusted according to needs. Some bays have denser bracket arms, others sparser, and some even omit the inner brackets altogether. This approach reflects the unique construction methods of ancient architecture. The Temple of Confucius preserves 1,044 stone tablets from the Han Dynasty onwards, including records of feudal emperors posthumously honoring, conferring titles upon, worshipping Confucius, and renovating the temple, as well as poetic inscriptions and writings left by emperors, generals, officials, and scholars who visited the temple. The inscriptions are in Chinese, Mongolian, 'Phags-pa script, and Manchu, with calligraphic styles including regular, cursive, clerical, and seal scripts. These steles are precious historical materials for studying the politics, economy, culture, and art of feudal society. Among them are over 20 Han Dynasty steles and inscriptions, making it the site with the largest collection of Han Dynasty stone carvings in China. The Yi Ying Stele, Li Qi Stele, Kong Zhou Stele, and Shi Chen Stele are representative works of Han clerical script, while the Zhang Menglong Stele and Jia Shijun Stele are models of Wei-style regular script. In addition, there are calligraphic works by Sun Xiangfan, Mi Fu, Dang Huaiying, Zhao Mengfu, Zhang Qiyian, Li Dongyang, Dong Qichang, and Weng Fanggang, as well as inscriptions by Yuan Haowen and Guo Zijing. The massive series of calligraphy rubbings, the Yuhonglou Calligraphy Collection by Kong Jilu consisting of 584 stone tablets, is also housed here. The stone carvings in the Temple of Confucius represent a treasure trove of ancient Chinese calligraphy art. Famous stone carving artworks in the Temple of Confucius include Han Dynasty relief stones, Ming and Qing Dynasty carved stone pillars, and Ming Dynasty carvings of the Sage’s Traces. There are over 90 Han relief stones with a wide range of themes, depicting not only scenes of social life but also historical stories and mythological legends. The carving techniques are diverse, including line engraving and relief carving. Line engraving includes sunken relief, raised relief, flat background, and line background; relief carving varies in depth, with smooth and rough surfaces. The styles range from refined and delicate to bold and unconstrained, with smooth lines and elegant forms. There are 74 carved stone pillars from the Ming and Qing Dynasties, including 56 with sunken relief and 18 with high relief. The sunken relief designs mostly feature small-scale motifs such as dragons, phoenixes, and peony flowers, created in the seventh year of the Yongzheng reign of the Qing Dynasty. The Chongsheng Shrine features carvings of peonies, pomegranates, and lotus flowers, with beautiful compositions dating back to the 17th year of the Hongzhi reign of the Ming Dynasty. The finest stone carvings are the high-relief dragon pillars—the ten pillars along the front eaves of the Dacheng Hall, each standing six meters tall, are the most imposing. The two dragon pillars in the Chongsheng Shrine feature vigorous dragon forms and lively cloud motifs, representing the highest level of craftsmanship. Additionally, the shallow relief carvings of cloud-dragon stone steps at the Shengshi Gate, Dacheng Gate, and Dacheng Hall also hold significant artistic value. The Sage’s Traces were created in the 20th year of the Wanli reign of the Ming Dynasty (1592) based on the Song and Jin wooden carvings of the Temple of Confucius, compiled and proofread by Mao Fengyi, a Confucian student from Qufu, painted by Yang Zhi of Yangzhou, and engraved by the stonemason Zhang Cao of Suzhou. The 120 illustrations vividly depict the life and deeds of Confucius and are among the earliest large-scale Chinese graphic novels, possessing high historical and artistic value. For over two thousand years, the Qufu Temple of Confucius has been destroyed and rebuilt repeatedly but has never been abandoned. Under national protection, it evolved from Confucius’s private residence into a massive architectural complex rivaling the scale of imperial palaces. Its longevity and rich documentation make it a unique example in the history of human architecture.

　　Temple of Confucius Scenic Area

　　The Temple of Confucius is a temple where emperors of successive feudal dynasties worshipped Confucius, the great thinker, statesman, and educator of the Spring and Autumn Period. It is located in the center of Qufu and is a grand ancient architectural complex with distinctive Eastern architectural features, immense scale, and majestic presence.

　　Lingxing Gate

　　Lingxing, also known as the Spirit Star or Tian Tian Star, was believed by the ancients to "govern the joy of attracting virtuous individuals." In ancient times, when offering sacrifices to heaven, the Spirit Star was worshipped first. The Temple of Confucius has a gate named after the Spirit Star to signify that respecting Confucius is akin to respecting heaven.

　　The Lingxing Gate is located behind the Pan Shui Bridge. It has four pillars and three bays. The stone pillars support an iron beam cast with twelve dragon-shaped valve decorations. The four round stone pillars are adorned with auspicious clouds, and their tops feature carvings of fierce heavenly generals with stern expressions. The lintel is carved with flaming jewels. The central lintel consists of two layers of stone slabs: the lower layer bears the three large characters “Lingxing Gate” handwritten by Emperor Qianlong, and the upper layer is decorated with decorative patterns. During the Ming Dynasty, this gate was made of wood, but it was rebuilt with stone in the 19th year of the Qianlong reign of the Qing Dynasty (1754). Lingxing Gate of the Temple of Confucius

　　Inside the Lingxing Gate are two archways: the southern one is the Taihe Yuanqi Archway, built in the spring of the 23rd year of the Jiajing reign of the Ming Dynasty (1544), with a design similar to the Jingsheng Yuzhen Archway. The inscription on the archway was written by Zeng Xian, the governor of Shandong, praising Confucius’s thought as the source of all creation, just like heaven and earth nurturing all things. The northern one is the Zhisheng Miao Archway. The Ming Dynasty inscription is in seal script. Originally, it was inscribed with the three characters “Xuansheng Miao” (Temple of the Exalted Sage), but in the 7th year of the Yongzheng reign of the Qing Dynasty (1729), it was changed to its current name. The archway is made of white marble, with three bays and four pillars. The pillars are decorated with auspicious clouds, and the lintel is adorned with flaming jewels. To praise the profound influence of Confucius’s thought on Chinese society, the eight characters “De Mu Tian Di” (Virtue Matches Heaven and Earth) and “Dao Guan Gu Jin” (Teachings Surpass Past and Present) were used, meaning his contributions were as vast as the universe, and his doctrines were the best of all time. Therefore, two symmetrical wooden archways were built on the left and right sides of the first courtyard of the Temple of Confucius, with the eastern one inscribed “De Mu Tian Di” and the western one “Dao Guan Gu Jin,” serving as the first side gates of the temple. These two archways were built in the early Ming Dynasty and exhibit distinct characteristics of the period. The architecture is wooden, with three bays, four pillars, and five stories, covered with yellow glazed tiles, adorned with ruyi-style brackets, and featuring thirteen-step brackets in the central bay and nine-step brackets in the side bays, with five-step small roofs in between. Each archway is decorated with eight stone-carved mythical beasts. The four central beasts are Tianlu, with dragon scales, swishing tails, long necks, and sharp claws. The four flanking beasts are Pixiu, with fierce expressions and twisted necks, appearing bizarre.

　　Shengshi Gate

　　Shengshi Gate

　　According to the "Mencius," it is recorded: “Mencius said: ‘Bo Yi is the sage of purity; Yi Yin is the sage of duty; Liu Xia Hui is the sage of harmony; Confucius is the sage of timeliness.’” This means that among the sages, Confucius was the most attuned to his times. Accordingly, Emperor Yongzheng of the Qing Dynasty officially designated the main gate of the Temple of Confucius as the “Shengshi Gate” in the 8th year of the Yongzheng reign (1730). The Shengshi Gate was initially built in the 13th year of the Yongle reign of the Ming Dynasty (1415), with three bays. It was expanded to five bays during the Hongzhi reign, featuring three arched gateways. It has green-tiled hip-and-gable roofs, surrounded by deep red walls, with apricot-yellow walls inside the archways, and stone-carved dragon steps on the front and back staircases. Looking through the archway, one is struck by a sense of profound mystery.

　　Passing through the Shengshi Gate, a vast courtyard opens up, filled with ancient cypresses, lush greenery, and fragrant grass. Three arched bridges span the waterway ahead, with a stream running through it, its clear waves rippling and lotus leaves dotting the surface. The water is surrounded by exquisitely carved stone railings. The water “surges like a wall,” hence the name “Bi Shui” (Wall Water), and the bridge is thus named “Bi Shui Qiao” (Wall Water Bridge). To the south of the bridge are two gates on the east and west, connected by a passageway. The eastern gate is inscribed “Kuai Du Men” (Gate of Joyful Sight), taken from Li Bo’s phrase “like a lucky star or phoenix, everyone vies to be the first to see it”—meaning “the joy of seeing something first.” The western gate is inscribed “Yang Gao Men” (Gate of Reverence for Height), taken from the Analects’ phrase “the more I look up at it, the higher it seems,” praising the profound depth of Confucius’s teachings. These are the second side gates of the Temple of Confucius. In the past, only the emperor could use the main gate during sacrificial ceremonies, while ordinary people could only enter through the Yang Gao Gate. Hongdao Gate

　　Hongdao Gate

　　North of the Bi Shui Bridge is the Hongdao Gate, the main gate of the Temple of Confucius during the 10th year of the Hongwu reign of the Ming Dynasty (1377). In the 7th year of the Yongzheng reign of the Qing Dynasty, it was officially named according to the Analects’ phrase “Man can broaden the Way,” in praise of Confucius’s elucidation of the ways of Yao, Shun, Yu, Tang, Wen, Wu, and the Duke of Zhou. Beneath the gate are two Yuan Dynasty steles: the eastern four-sided stele is the “Qufu County Historical Evolution Annals,” documenting the changes and evolution of Qufu, and is of high historical value. The western stele is the “Tomb Epitaph of Gentleman Wang Chu,” which has considerable calligraphic value and was moved into the Temple of Confucius for preservation in 1966.

　　Dazhong Gate

　　Passing through the Dazhong Gate leads into the fourth courtyard of the Temple of Confucius. The courtyard is spacious, with ancient trees thriving and birds flying about. In summer, herons and egrets dance in the air, and egrets flutter gracefully; in winter and spring, magpies chirp, sparrows chatter, and crows caw at dusk, creating a serene and secluded atmosphere. The Dazhong Gate was originally named Zhonghe Gate. It is longer and narrower than the Hongdao Gate, with five bays. It was originally the main gate of the Temple of Confucius during the Song Dynasty, later renovated during the Hongzhi reign of the Ming Dynasty, and the current gate was built during the Qing Dynasty. On either side of the gate are green-tiled corner towers, built in the 2nd year of the Yuanshun reign of the Yuan Dynasty (1331) to give the Temple of Confucius the imposing appearance of an imperial palace. Each tower has three bays, with a trapezoidal floor plan, standing on a square high platform. There is a ramp on the inner side of the platform for ascending and descending. These two corner towers, together with the northeast and northwest corner towers of the temple, form a large rectangle for guard purposes.

　　Kuiwen Pavilion

　　Upon entering the Dazhong Gate, the Tongwen Gate is directly ahead. The gate building is five bays wide and two bays deep, with yellow-tiled hip-and-gable roofs and a spacious arrangement of bracket sets. In the early Qing Dynasty, this gate was once called the “Can Tong Gate,” but was renamed after the Shunzhi reign. Beyond the Tongwen Gate, at the northern end of the courtyard, rises a lofty pavilion. Under its eaves hangs a wooden plaque encircled by carved dragons, inscribed with the three large characters “Kuiwen Pavilion.” This is the renowned library of the Temple of Confucius, famous both in China and abroad for its rich collection of books and unique architecture. The Kuiwen Pavilion was initially built in the 2nd year of the Tianxi reign of the Song Dynasty (1018) and was originally called the “Library.” It was renamed “Kuiwen Pavilion” in the 2nd year of the Mingchang reign of Emperor Zhangzong of the Jin Dynasty (1191) during renovations, and Emperor Qianlong of the Qing Dynasty personally wrote its plaque. “Kui” is the name of a star, one of the 28 lunar mansions. It is the first of the 16 stars in the White Tiger constellation of the West, “curving and hooking together, resembling the strokes of writing.” Therefore, the “Classic of Filial Piety” states that “Kui governs literature,” and later generations associated the Kui (or Kui) star with the chief of civil officials. Later feudal emperors, in praise of Confucius, named the Temple of Confucius library the Kuiwen Pavilion. Kuiwen Pavilion

　　The Kuiwen Pavilion is 23.35 meters high, 30.1 meters wide, and 17.62 meters deep, with yellow-tiled hip-and-gable roofs, triple eaves, and four tiers of bracket sets. The interior has two stories, with side rooms on both sides, a central corridor, and a rear chamber. The upper level features a mezzanine structure. The architectural layout is rational, creating a sense of loftiness and grandeur. It has withstood centuries of wind and rain and multiple earthquakes since its renovation in the 504th year of the Yuan Dynasty (1504). Although the massive earthquake during the Kangxi reign caused 90% of the houses in Qufu to collapse, the sturdy Kuiwen Pavilion remained unscathed, standing firmly as a testament to its resilience, and is rightly regarded as one of China’s famous ancient wooden structures. The stone stele in the pavilion’s western stele pavilion, recording the earthquake during the Kangxi reign, serves as evidence of the pavilion’s sturdiness. In front of the pavilion are two imperial stele pavilions, housing four Ming Dynasty imperial steles. Each stele is over six meters tall and more than two meters wide, with stone turtle pedestals over a meter high. The stele tops are exquisitely carved with coiling dragons, vividly circling the sun. The inscriptions mostly extol Confucius. The open-air “Reconstruction of the Confucius Temple Stele” in the southeast is erected by Emperor Xianzong of the Ming Dynasty, Zhu Jianshen. The inscription highly praises Confucius’s thought: “I believe that the teachings of Confucius are indispensable for any ruler of the world for even a single day.” The calligraphy is in regular script, with a dignified style, rigorous structure, and exquisite craftsmanship, renowned worldwide. The stele was erected in the 4th year of the Chenghua reign (1468) and is commonly known as the “Chenghua Stele.” On the east and west sides of the courtyard are separate courtyards, called “Zhai Su” (Fasting Lodgings), where ritual participants fasted and bathed before worshipping Confucius. The eastern courtyard served as the fasting lodging for the Yan Sheng Gong (Duke of Yansheng). Emperors Kangxi and Qianlong of the Qing Dynasty bathed here during their worship ceremonies and it was also called the “Imperial Lodging.” It now houses an exhibition on Confucius’s life. The western courtyard was the fasting lodging for accompanying officials. It had been abandoned by the mid-Qing Dynasty, leaving only the courtyard. During the Daoguang reign, Kong Zhaoxun, the 71st-generation descendant of Confucius, inlaid over 130 stone tablets of literary figures from the Song, Jin, Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties who visited the temple within the courtyard walls, renaming it the “Stele Courtyard.” The steles feature a variety of styles—some bold and unrestrained, others graceful and free-flowing; some rich and elegant, others dignified and simple—displaying a wealth of masterpieces.

　　Thirteen Stele Pavilions

　　Thirteen Stele Pavilions

　　Beyond the Kuiwen Pavilion lies the sixth courtyard of the Temple of Confucius. The courtyard is narrow and long, with 13 stele pavilions standing in two rows—eight to the south and five to the north—arranged in orderly fashion, with splendid brackets and magnificent railings, exuding a classical elegance. These pavilions were built to enshrine imperial steles bestowed by emperors, including posthumous titles, enfeoffments, temple worship, official delegations sent to offer sacrifices, and records of temple renovations, inscribed in Chinese, 'Phags-pa script (Mongolian script of the Yuan Dynasty), and Manchu. The five pavilions to the north were built during the Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong reigns of the Qing Dynasty. Of the eight pavilions to the south, four are Jin and Yuan Dynasty structures. The third and sixth pavilions from the east were built in the 6th year of the Mingchang reign of the Jin Dynasty (1195). The fourth was built in the 5th year of the Yuanshi reign of the Yuan Dynasty (1268), the fifth in the 6th year of the Yuandade reign (1302), and the remaining four were built during the Qing Dynasty. The two square Jin Dynasty pavilions feature dense bracket sets and grand designs, representing the earliest forms of such architecture. The stone tablets in each pavilion rest on pedestals shaped like turtles but not turtles, called bixi (mythical creatures said to be sons of dragons). Legend has it that dragons have nine sons, each with different abilities, and the bixi is known for carrying stelae on its back, often used to commemorate merits. The earliest steles are the two in the sixth Jin Dynasty pavilion from the east: one is the “Great Tang’s Posthumous Title for the Sage Lu, the Former Sage Kong Xuan Ni,” erected in the 6th year of the Kangxi reign (1688), and the other is the “Lu Kong Fuzi Miao Stele,” erected in the 7th year of the Kaiyuan reign of Emperor Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty (719). Both are located in the sixth Jin Dynasty pavilion from the east. The largest stele is the one erected in the 25th year of the Kangxi reign (1686), located in the third pavilion from the east in the northern row. This stele weighs approximately 35 tons, and with its pedestal, the total weight is 50 tons. The stone was quarried from the Western Hills in Beijing. Transporting such a massive stele to Qufu, thousands of miles away, under the technological conditions of the time, is truly astounding. In the southeast and southwest corners of the courtyard are dense clusters of steles. The northern wall’s vermilion railings also house a large number of stone carvings, all engraved after the renovation, worship, or offering of sacrifices to the temple by emperors and ministers throughout the dynasties. From a calligraphic perspective, the works showcase the diversity of regular, cursive, clerical, and seal scripts. Several steles also provide side accounts of peasant uprisings, such as the Red Turban Rebellion at the end of the Yuan Dynasty, the Liu Liu and Liu Qi uprisings in the mid-Ming Dynasty, and the Xu Hongru uprising at the end of the Ming Dynasty, making them valuable historical materials for studying peasant revolutionary history. On both sides of the Thirteen Stele Pavilion courtyard are the Yucui Gate to the east and the Guande Gate to the west, serving as entrances and exits. Following the naming conventions of imperial palaces, they are called the East and West Flower Gates. These are the third side gates of the Temple of Confucius. Dacheng Gate

　　Dacheng Gate

　　North of the Thirteen Stele Pavilions is the centrally located Dacheng Gate, the seventh main gate of the Temple of Confucius. “Dacheng” is the title Confucius gave himself. He said, “Confucius is the one who embodies the great synthesis,” praising him for having achieved the highest realm of synthesizing the virtues of all ancient sages. Here, the five gates stand wide open, dividing the Temple of Confucius into three routes: the eastern Chongsheng Gate enshrines the five generations of Confucius’s ancestors; the western Qisheng Gate enshrines Confucius’s parents; and the central Dacheng Gate is dedicated to worshipping Confucius and his wife, along with the accompanying ancient sages and worthies. The three gates stand side by side, with the golden sound gate on the left and the jade zhen gate on the right. “Golden sound” refers to the sound of striking a bell, symbolizing the beginning of music, while “jade zhen” refers to the sound of striking a chime, symbolizing the end of music—used to signify that Confucius’s thought represents the great synthesis of all ancient sages. The Thirteen Stele Pavilions south of the Dacheng Gate were built incrementally from the Jin Dynasty onwards. The skilled craftsmen made full use of the traditional “interlocking rafters” architectural technique to ingeniously solve the structural spatial challenges of the buildings.

　　Apricot Altar

　　Apricot Altar

　　The two characters “杏坛” (Apricot Altar) mark the legendary site where Confucius taught. The earliest record of Confucius teaching at the Apricot Altar appears in Zhuangzi·The Fisherman: “Confucius wandered through the forest of black curtains, rested and sat on the Apricot Altar. His disciples read aloud while Confucius strummed his lute and sang.” However, the original location is not documented. In the second year of the Tianxi era of the Song Dynasty (1018), Kong Daofu, the 45th-generation descendant of Confucius, supervised the renovation of the Confucius Temple. He moved the main hall back and expanded it, leveling the original site of the main hall “to create an altar, surrounded by apricot trees, and named it the Apricot Altar.” The Jin Dynasty was the first to build a pavilion on the altar, with the two characters “杏坛” inscribed in seal script by the famous scholar Dang Huaiying. The Apricot Altar features a cross-hipped roof, suspended gables on all four sides, yellow tiles, red railings, exquisitely carved beams and painted rafters, with richly decorated patterns. In front of the altar stands a finely carved stone incense burner, and a few apricot trees grow nearby. Every early spring, their red blossoms sway gently. Emperor Qianlong once composed a poem for it: “Returning again as the blossoms blaze, / A few trees clustered ‘neath the east wind’s blaze. / Can these compare with mortal blooms so fair? / Civilization shares eternal springtime’s care.”

　　Side Halls

　　The buildings on the east and west sides of the Dacheng Hall are called the “Side Halls (两庑).” They were later used to enshrine ancient sages and Confucian scholars. Most of these honored figures were renowned personalities from later Confucian schools, such as Dong Zhongshu, Han Yu, and Wang Yangming. In the Tang Dynasty, there were only about 20, but over the dynasties, this number grew through additions and replacements, reaching 156 by the Republican era. Originally, these figures were represented by paintings; in the Jin Dynasty, they were replaced by statues, and during the Ming Chenghua period, they were changed to wooden name plaques housed in individual shrines. Today, the Side Halls display stone carvings from various dynasties. “As the old cypress once bathed in Zhou’s rain and dew, / The broken stele still bears Han literature true.” The East Side Hall preserves over 40 stone tablets from the Han, Wei, Sui, Tang, Song, and Yuan dynasties, the most precious being the “Han-Wei Northern Dynasties Stone Carvings,” totaling 22 pieces. Among Western Han stone carvings, the “Five Phoenixes” stand out; for Eastern Han, the “Ritual Vessel,” “Yi?,” “Kong Zhou,” and “Shichen” steles are treasured examples of clerical script; the Northern Dynasties are represented by the “Zhang Menglong” stele as a model of Wei-style regular script. The West Side Hall displays over 100 “Han Dynasty Relief Stone Carvings,” also long-renowned as artistic treasures. These carvings cover a rich variety of subjects—from mythical creatures like the Azure Dragon, White Tiger, Vermilion Bird, and Black Tortoise, to scenes of daily life such as fishing, dancing, acrobatics, medicine, and hunting—serving as invaluable resources for studying Han society. The carving techniques range from delicate and refined to bold and unrestrained, each with its own style. In the northern part of the Side Halls are displayed 584 “Jade Rainbow Tower Stone Carvings,” meticulously copied and engraved by Kong Jilu, a descendant of Confucius during the Qing Qianlong era, based on the handwriting of famous calligraphers throughout history. These carvings were originally discarded under the Jade Rainbow Tower in Qufu’s “Twelve Mansions,” moved into the Confucius Temple in 1951, and installed for public viewing in 1964, offering appreciation for calligraphy enthusiasts.

　　Dacheng Hall

　　Looking north from the Apricot Altar, atop a two-tiered stone terrace stands a grand golden hall, seemingly floating in midair. Within its double-eaved roof, a sea-blue vertical plaque bears three gold characters—“大成殿” (Dacheng Hall)—carved in relief and gilded, tightly encircled by dragons. Each character is one meter in diameter, handwritten by Emperor Yongzheng of the Qing Dynasty. Dacheng Hall

　　Dacheng Hall is the main hall of the Confucius Temple, standing 24.8 meters high, 45.78 meters wide, and 24.89 meters deep. It features a double-eaved, nine-ridged roof with yellow tiles and flying eaves, surrounded by corridors. Along with the Hall of Supreme Harmony in the Forbidden City and the Song Dynasty’s Tiankuang Hall in the Dai Temple, it is known as one of the Three Great Halls of the East. The hall has a simple yet majestic structure, with upturned eaves, bracket sets (斗拱) precisely aligned, painted rafters, and an open interior that harmonizes with its surroundings. The hall houses 18 intricately carved dragon pillars made of stone, each hewn from a single block. These pillars are 5.98 meters tall and 0.81 meters in diameter, resting on double-layered lotus-petal bases. Originally commissioned in the 13th year of the Hongzhi era of the Ming Dynasty (1500) and carved by artisans from Huizhou, they were recarved after a fire in the 2nd year of the Yongzheng era of the Qing Dynasty. The 18 eight-sided shallow-carved stone pillars along the side and rear eaves are adorned with cloud-and-dragon motifs, each face featuring nine coiled dragons, totaling 72 dragons per pillar. Careful artisans even recorded the total number of dragons carved—1,296. The 10 pillars along the front eaves feature deep relief carvings, each depicting two dragons facing each other, spiraling upward with a precious pearl at the center, surrounded by flaming clouds, and rooted on mountain-shaped pedestals amid waves. These 10 dragon pillars are arranged in pairs, each uniquely designed without repetition, with graceful forms, exquisite craftsmanship, sharp and powerful lines, and lifelike dragons. This is a unique treasure of Qufu’s stone carving art. Legend says that when Emperor Qianlong visited Qufu to worship Confucius, the pillars were wrapped in red silk to prevent the emperor from seeing them, lest he be displeased by their surpassing the beauty of the imperial palace. The architectural artistry of Dacheng Hall fully showcases the talent and wisdom of the Chinese working people. Inside the hall

　　At the center of Dacheng Hall stands a statue of Confucius, seated 3.35 meters tall, wearing a twelve-tasseled crown and a robe adorned with twelve symbolic patterns, holding a ceremonial tablet as per the etiquette of ancient emperors. On either side are the Four Companions: to the east facing west are Yan Hui (Restored Sage) and Kong Ji (Narrator Sage); to the west facing east are Zeng Shen (Exemplary Sage) and Ruan Yuan (Moral Sage). Below them are the Twelve Philosophers: to the east are Min Sun, Ran Yong, Zai Yu, and Zai Wo; to the west are Zhong You, Bu Shang, You Ruo, Zhu Xi, and others. The statues of the Twelve Philosophers are 3.6 meters tall, while the main statues are 2 meters seated, all wearing nine-tasseled crowns and robes with nine symbolic patterns, holding ceremonial jade tablets as per the etiquette of ancient nobles. All statues are placed within wooden shrines covered in gold leaf. The statue of Confucius has its own shrine with thirteen-tiered bracket sets, while the others share shrines with two accompanying levels. The shrine of Confucius is particularly ornate, with carved dragons and phoenixes, suspended decorations, and painted patterns. The surrounding area includes 68 plaques and 3 pairs of couplets. The central plaque outside the door, inscribed with “None Greater Since the Birth of Man” by Emperor Yongzheng, the central plaque inside reading “Model Teacher for All Ages” by Emperor Kangxi, and “Herein Lies Culture” by Emperor Guangxu, along with the southern plaque “Maintain the Mean and Uphold the Ultimate” by Emperor Qianlong. Each plaque is over 6 meters long and about 2.6 meters high, covered in carved dragons and gold leaf, exquisitely ornate. The hall is built on a two-tiered terrace, connected to a front platform over 2 meters high, approximately 4.5 meters wide east-west and 35 meters deep north-south, with carved floral Sumeru pedestals, double-layered stone railings, and stone dragon heads beneath the lotus-patterned railing posts. The southern center features two carved dragon steps. The platform served as the performance space for ritual singing and dancing, and today, on Confucius’s birthday (the 28th day of the ninth lunar month), the Eight-Row Dance (an ancient dance with equal numbers of dancers in rows and columns; according to Western Zhou hierarchical rules, the emperor used eight rows of 64 dancers, feudal lords six rows of 36) is performed.

　　Sleeping Chamber Hall

　　Turning behind the corridors of Dacheng Hall and passing through layered railings, another double-eaved hall stands—this is the “Sleeping Chamber Hall” (寝殿), one of the three major structures of the Confucius Temple (the other two being the Kuiwen Pavilion and Dacheng Hall). It is dedicated to Lady Qiguan, Confucius’s wife. The Sleeping Chamber Hall is seven bays wide and four bays deep, with golden decorations. The beams and caisson ceiling are covered in gold leaf, and the 22 stone pillars supporting the eaves feature shallow-carved phoenix-and-peony designs, following the style of an imperial queen’s chambers. The wooden shrine inside is exquisitely carved with dragons and phoenixes, and holds a wooden plaque inscribed “Spirit Tablet of the Sage’s Wife.” Qiguan, recorded as Bingguan on the Ritual Vessel Stele, was from the State of Song. She married Confucius at age 19 and passed away seven years before him. Few ancient texts document her life, until she was posthumously honored as “Lady of Yanzhou” by Emperor Zhenzong of the Song Dynasty in 1008, then further titled “Wife of the Great Sage, the Cultured King” in 1332 during the Yuan Dynasty. When Confucius was renamed “Great Sage, Exemplary Teacher” in 1592 during the Ming Dynasty, she became known as “Wife of the Great Sage, Exemplary Teacher.” After Confucius’s death, “his residence was turned into a temple,” and Lady Qiguan was worshipped alongside him. The Sleeping Chamber Hall was established in the Tang Dynasty, initially housing a statue, but after the Yongzheng-era fire, only a spirit tablet remained, covered by a carved wooden shrine, with an offering table in front.

　　Hall of Sacred Traces

　　The Hall of Sacred Traces (圣迹殿) is named for housing the stone-carved picture series “Sacred Traces” (圣迹图), depicting the life of Confucius. Located behind the Sleeping Chamber Hall and forming its own courtyard, it is the ninth and final section of the Confucius Temple complex. The hall was built in the 20th year of the Wanli era of the Ming Dynasty (1529) under the direction of imperial inspector He Chuguang. Previously, the temple had wooden illustrations of Confucius’s deeds, which he proposed be replaced with stone carvings. Painted by Yang Zhi and carved by Zhang, the 120 “Sacred Traces” images were embedded into the hall’s walls. Each Sacred Traces image is about 38 cm wide and 60 cm tall, illustrating events from the prayer of Confucius’s mother at Ni Mountain for his birth to the mourning of his disciples by his tomb after his death, including two scenes of Emperor Gaozu of Han and Emperor Zhenzong of Song performing grand sacrifices to Confucius. Among the well-known scenes are “The People of Song Cut Down Trees” and “Tyranny Is Fiercer Than a Tiger,” depicting key events and sayings from Confucius’s life. It is China’s first complete narrative picture series, holding great historical and artistic value. At the entrance of the Hall of Sacred Traces stands a stone engraving of Emperor Kangxi’s “Model Teacher for All Ages.” Below it is a painting by Wu Daozi of the Tang Dynasty, “Confucius as Minister of Lu,” on the left is Gu Kaizhi of the Jin Dynasty’s “Portrait of the Sage,” commonly called “The Sage’s Small Image,” said to be the most authentic and lifelike of Confucius portraits. Kong Duanyou, the 48th-generation descendant of Confucius, copied it onto stone in 1095. On the right is Wu Daozi’s “Confucius Leaning on a Armrest,” showing Confucius seated with disciples attending, copied onto stone by Kong Zongsou, the 46th-generation descendant, in 1112. These portraits bear imperial praises from emperors like Taizu and Zhenzong of Song, along with inscriptions from the Shaosheng and Zhenghe eras. The hall also displays Mi Fu’s seal script “Praise of the Great Confucius” and imperial stelae by Emperors Kangxi and Qianlong.

　　Confucius (551 BCE～479 BCE)　　 Confucius (551–479 BCE), whose given name was Qiu and courtesy name Zhongni, was a native of Zouyi in Changping, the State of Lu (present-day southeastern Qufu, Shandong). He was a philosopher, educator, and statesman of the late Spring and Autumn Period, the founder of Confucianism, and one of the most influential figures in Chinese history and culture. His impact extends globally, especially across Southeast Asia, making him a world cultural icon. 　　Confucius’s ancestors were from the royal house of the Shang Dynasty. His earliest known ancestor was Weizi Qi, the half-brother of the tyrant King Zhou of Shang, who presided over Shang rituals and was enfeoffed in the State of Song. His sixth-generation ancestor, Kong Fu Jia, was the first to adopt the surname Kong. His fifth-generation ancestor, Meng Fu (Mu Jin Fu), fled to Lu and eventually settled in Zouyi. His father, Shuliang He, was a renowned warrior of Lu, famed for his bravery and strength among the feudal lords. In his later years... More +